Brown+Chapter+2+and+Class+Notes

__** Brown, Chapter 3 **__ Theories provide us with simplified pictures, roadmaps to career developmental process.
 * The Purposes & Evaluation of Theory **


 * Characteristics of a "good" theory: **
 * They have well-defined terms and constructs that can be easily interpreted by practitioners and researchers.
 * The relationship between constructs are clearly articulated
 * New research is stimulated.
 * They are comprehensive. (They explain the career development process for all groups.)
 * Their layout is as simple as it can be, while still describing the phenomena involved.
 * Provides a framework for designing practices. (Brown, p. 25) (Brown, 2016, p.43)


 * Purpose of Theories:**
 * Help us understand why people choose careers, then become dissatisfied with them
 * Allow us to interpret past, present, and future data * Help us account for all factors that influence career development
 * Help us account for all internal and external factors that influence career development
 * Stimulate research that will help to better clarify career choice and the development process
 * Provide a guide to practice in the absence of empirical guidelines (Brown, 2016, p.43)


 * Functions of a theory: **
 * To facilitate the understanding of the forces that influence career choice and development.
 * To stimulate research that will help to better clarify career choice and the development process.
 * To provide a guide to practice in the absence of empirical guidelines.


 * History of Career Development Theorizing**
 * 1909- //Choosing your Vocation// by Frank Parson
 * Perhaps the major issue during this time was that there were no tools that could be used to measure the personal traits of clients.
 * Additionally, there was no single source of occupational information other than personal exploration
 * Army Alpha is developed by Ralph Yerkes- measured verbal ability and numerical ability, as well as ability to follow directions and general knowledge.
 * Difficult to say why some theories become influential and others do not.
 * Bordin's theory in 1984 was well constructed. Did not become popular because it was built on psychodynamic theory, which is not a widely accepted type of counseling among counselors.
 * Roe's theory lost popularity gradually due to the inability to verify her basic propositions that early childhood environments and personality types that have an effect on career selection later in life.
 * Krumboltz's map metaphor in 1994 did not do the best job in providing maps to the vast array of phenomena that influence career development.
 * No perfect theory yet to emerge in counseling; Unlikely that it will.
 * Some newer theories of career choice and development may become influential in the future-- An example of this are the constructivist theories beginning to get a lot of attention from both scientists and those in practice.


 * Is career development theory unintentionally racist?**
 * Sue and Sue (2000) and Pedersen (1991) have proposed that most of the theories included in training programs are culturally oppressive because they are rooted in Eurocentric beliefs.
 * The Western European worldview is that people should act independently when they make career decisions, a belief that arises from the cultural beliefs that individual is the most important social unit. (Brown, 2016, p.46)
 * Many American Indians, Asian Americans, and Hispanics believe that the welfare of the group should be placed ahead of the concerns of the individuals. (Brown, 2016, p.46)
 * Monocultural theories are flawed because they lack cultural validity. - but can provide a valid basis for practice for people who do not hold a western European worldview
 * It is the cultural beliefs of the client that is most important in the career counseling process
 * The modern philosophical assumptions upon which theories in this chapter are based on are:
 * Human behavior can be measured objectively if reliable, valid instruments are used
 * Human behavior can be studied outside of the context in which it occurs
 * Research processes should be value free.
 * Cause-and-effect relationships occur and can be measured
 * If certain conditions are met, such as random sampling, the use of reliable, valid instruments, and lack of contamination of results by the researcher's values, then results can be generalized to other people in similar setting
 * As much as possible, career counselors should maintain their objectivity, use instruments that are reliable and valid, and base their practice on well-designed empirical research

Based on several assumptions (p. 47):
 * Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice**


 * 1) An individual's __personalit____y is the primary factor in vocational choice__
 * 2) Interest inventories are in fact personality inventories
 * 3) Individuals develop stereotypical views of occupations that have psychological relevance. These __stereotypes play a major role in occupational choice__.
 * 4) Daydreams about occupations are often precursors to occupational choices.
 * 5) Identity is related to having __a small number of rather focused vocational goals__
 * Identity - clarity of an individuals perception of his or her goals and personal characteristics (Brown, 2016, p.48)
 * 1) Personality types that are consistent and differentiated are likely to be the best predictors of occupational choice and satisfaction in the choice. (Brown, 2016, p.48)
 * Consistency is present when the individual types of the first three letters in the profile are adjacent on the hexagon" (Brown, 2016, p.48)
 * 1) To be successful and satisfied in one's career it is necessary to choose an occupation that is __congruent or consistent__ with one's personality.
 * People in the environment have the same or similar characteristics as those of the worker (Brown, 2016, p.48)

Personality develops as a result of the interaction of inherited characteristics, the activities to which the individual is exposed, and the interests and competencies that grow out of the activities.

Holland posits the following "pure" personality types:
 * **Realistic**: people deal with the environment in an objective, concrete, and physically manipulative manner. They avoid goals and tasks that demand subjectivity, intellectual or artistic expression, or social abilities. They prefer agricultural, technical, skilled-trade, and engineering vocations.
 * **Investigative**: people deal with the environment by using intellect, manipulating ideas, words, and symbols. They prefer scientific vocations, theoretical tasks, reading, collecting, algebra, foreign languages, and creative activities such as art, music, and sculpture. They avoid social situations, and see themselves as unsociable, masculine, persistent, and introverted.
 * **Artistic**: people deal with environment by creating art forms and products. They rely on subjective impressions and fantasies in seeking solutions to problems. They prefer musical, artistic, literacy, and dramatic vocations.
 * **Social**: people deal with environment by using social skills to interact with and relate to others. They prefer educational, therapeutic, and religious vocations, such as church, government, community services, music.
 * **Enterprising**: people cope with environment by expressing adventurous, dominate, enthusiastic, and impulsive qualities. Characterized as persuasive, verbal, extroverted, self-confident, aggressive and they prefer sales, supervisory, and leadership vocations.
 * **Conventional:** people deal with environment by choosing goals and activities that carry social approval. Their approach is stereotypical, correct, and unoriginal. They prefer clerical and computational tasks, identify with business.

Holland Posits six work environments:
 * **Realistic**: involves concrete, physical tasks requiring mechanical skill, persistence, & physical movement (Mechanical shop, farm, construction)
 * **Investigative**: requires use of abstract & creative abilities. (research labs, library, science)
 * **Social**: demands the ability to interpret & modify human behavior & have interest in caring for and interacting with people (schools, mental hospital, education)
 * **Artistic**: demands the creative & interpretive use of artistic forms ( concert halls, dance studio)
 * **Enterprising**: requires verbal skill in directing and persuading people (real-estate office)
 * **Conventional:** involves systematic, concrete, routine processing of verbal and mathematical information. (Bank, accounting firm, post office).

Application
 * Holland's theory is the most influential of all extant theories.
 * The goal of career exploration & counseling using Holland's theory is to help client groups identify occupations that include workers in them with similar personality characteristics as their own.
 * Holland’s conceptual scheme of interests is used in O*NET
 * Instruments based on this theory including Self-Directed Search and Find Your Interests are used by the Department of Defense along with the Armed Services Vocational Battery in its military recruitment program of high school students throughout the country

Weaknesses
 * criticized on the basis of its cultural validity
 * Must be applied cautiously if at all with persons whose worldviews vary from that of the dominant culture
 * Research that suggests the interest patterns of cultural minorities approximate those of white persons begs the question of appropriateness of the theory to these groups because it does little to address the issue of the decision-making process
 * The congruence conceptneeds a great deal more exploration as it pertains to minority and white persons


 * Research supports the use of Holland’s instruments with males, females, people from diverse cultural backgrounds
 * research has shown the men usually tend to be realistic, investigative, and enterprising while women tend to be social, artistic, and conventional


 * ===** **Terms Associated with Holland's Theory** (Class Notes, Sept. 7, 2011):

1) **Congruence** - the match between a person and a person's environment. A high congruence is thought to be associated with long-termjob satisfaction and tenure 2) **D****ifferentiation** - the degree of definition of an individual's interests. Interests are well-differentiated when there is a clear distinction between an individual's likes and dislikes. (The difference between the scores associated with the most prominent trait and the least prominent trait indicate the level of differentiation) 3) **C****onsistency** - reflection of the internal coherence of an individual's interest in terms of the hexagonal arrangement, example RIA is consistent, RIC is not consistent. if the personality types are adjacent on the hexagon 4) **I****dentity** - the clarity of an individual's perceptions of his or her goals and personal characteristics (i.e. interests, talents, etc.) Ex: The Self-Directed Search, The Strong Interest Inventory, Find Your Interest. (Brown, p. 34)
 * Holland believes that consistency and differential are indirect estimates of identity, which he defines as the clarity of an individuals goals and self-perceptions.
 * According to Holland, a person can be types into one of those categories by expressed or demonstrated vocational or educational interests, by employment, or by scores obtained on such instruments as the (Vocational Preference Inventory, the Strong Interest Inventory or Self-directed Search)(p. 31).
 * Self-directed Search was developed by Holland (Brown, 2012, p.31)
 * Goal of using Holland's Code in career counseling: to help client groups identify occupations that include workers in them with the same personality characteristics as their own (congruence).


 * Theories based on certain philosophical assumptions that fall into 2 categories:**
 * ** Positivist or Modernist theories **
 * Trait and factor theories, Developmental theories, theories rooted in learning theory
 * Assumptions:
 * 1) Behavior measured objectively if reliable, valid instruments utilized
 * 2) Behavior studied outside the context in which it occurs
 * 3) Research practices value-free. Researcher's values may not enter process or flawed
 * 4) Cause and effect relationships occur and measurable
 * 5) Results generalizable if certain conditions met (random sampling, use of reliability valid instruments, no contamination by researcher's values)
 * 6) Counselors must maintain objectivity, use reliable and valid instruments, and base their practice on well-designed empirical research
 * ** Constructivist or Postmodern theories **
 * Assumptions:
 * 1) Behavior is nonlinear - cannot be studied objectively
 * 2) Cause and effect relationships cannot be determined
 * 3) People cannot be studied outside the context in which they function
 * 4) Research data cannot be generalized
 * 5) Research is not value-free; researcher's values should guide process
 * 6) The narratives students tell are legitimate sources of data
 * 7) Research is goal free: It is to be a search for actual effects based on demonstrated needs. Random sampling replace with purposeful sampling
 * 8) Researchers focus on narratives of clients, use qualitative assessment procedures, and help construct goals based on client's context in which they function

**Trait & Factor**

-I ** ndividuals need to develop their traits, which includes their interests, values, personalities, and aptitudes. They also need to select environments that are congruent with their personality (Brown, p. 29) **


 * Frank Parsons was the forerunner of modern career development theories

3 Tenets of Trait-Factor Theory "Tripartite Model" By **//Frank Parsons//**
1) Individuals should understand their talents and preferences for certain kinds of work 2) Individuals must develop an understanding of what occupations call for their skills and will satisfy their preference 3) From this, a good career and occupational choice can be found ("true reasoning") * NOTE: This model underpinned career counseling and career development practice into the middle of the twentieth century

The first model to propose that a congruence between their work/work environment is necessary. Trait-and-factor theories, developmental theories, and theories rooted in learning theory are based on modernist or positivist philosophical thinking.
 * __Summary__ ** : A person should 1) understand one's self, 2) understand job requirements, 3) choose a career based upon knowledge and logic.

1. Human behavior can be measured objectively if reliable, valid instruments are utilized 2. Human behavior can be studied outside the context in which it occurs 3. Research processes should be value free 4. Cause and effect relationships occur and can be measured 5. If certain conditions are met results can be generalized to other people in similar settings 6. Career counselors shouldmaintain their objectivity, use reliable and valid instruments and base their practice on well-defined empirical research.
 * This position makes the following assumptions: **

===**Assumptions Underlying T-F Approach** (Class Notes, Sept. 7, 2011)===

1)Vocational development is largely __ a cognitive process __ ; decisions are to be reached by __ reasoning __ 2) Occupational choice is a __ single event __. (Choice is stressed greatly and development little) 3) There is __ a single "right" goal for everyone __ in the choice of vocation. There is little or no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations. 4) A __ single type of person works in each job __. (One-person, one-job relationship) 5) There is __ an occupational choice available to each individual __.

__ **Main Takeaway:** __ Trait and factor theories stress the individual's need to develop his or her traits as well as select environments that complement those traits.

** P-E Theory (Class Notes, Sept. 7, 2011) **

**Basic Premise:** Person (P) has basic needs and values as does the environment (E). The theory can be used as a "fit" theory as certain characteristics of P would be required to have a good fit with E. The characteristics usually are values/needs or skills.

= The Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA) =

>>> 2) **pace**-the vigor with which individual and work environment try to satisfy their needs >>> 3) **endurance**-the tolerance of the individual or the work environment for dealing with unsatisfactory work conditions or workers * focuses on adjustment process of an individual or adaptation >>> 4) **rhythm**-the pattern of attempts (e.g. steady, erratic, etc.) by individual and work environment to satisfy their needs
 * "The basic assumption of TWA is that people have two types of needs:biological needs, such as the need for food, and psychological needs, such as social acceptance.These needs give rise to drive states, which in turn lead to volitional behavior" (Brown, 2012, p.34). Needs can be intrinsic (internal-i.e., enjoyment) & external (money).
 * "A second assumption is that work environments have "requirements" that are analogous to the needs of individuals"(Brown, 2010, p.34).
 * A person chooses their occupation based on how well they believe the job will satisfy their needs
 * A person can better satisfy their job based on:
 * 1) **Skills** - job skills the individual can offer to the work environment
 * 2) **Aptitudes** - The potential to develop needed skills
 * 3) **Personality Structure** - The individual's combination of aptitudes and values
 * Values are determined by the importance attached to classes of reinforcement
 * Workers are selected based on how it is believed that they will satisfying the "requirements"/needs of the environment
 * Satisfaction of the individual & satisfactoriness of the environment influence the individual choosing to begin/continue a particular jobs, as well as volitional adjustment.
 * How well a person adjusts to the career depends on:
 * 1) **celerity**-the quickness with which workers engage their environment to satisfy their needs

Weebly (n.d.) //Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)//. Retrieved from http://disabilitycareerservices.weebly.com/career-theory.html (As seen on page 35 in Brown (2012))
 * Graphic Description of the Occupational Choice-Making Process in TWA**

**Purpose of MTWA:**

 * A theory of vocational adjustment, __ explaining why people stay employed in a particular job __
 * Considers both the __ internal needs __ of a worker and the __ external demands __ on the worker

Work Adjustment Defined:

 * Satisfaction** of the worker's expectations and need + __satisfactoriness__ of the worker to the demands of the work environment = __tenure__, or the state in which a worker remains employed in a job.
 * Correspondence**-when an individual selects an occupation that matches his or her personality type (Holland’s concept of congruence)


 * "Ultimately individuals compare all occupations being considered in terms of the extent to which they can perform satisfactorily and the degree to which the occupation will satisfy their needs"(Brown, 2012, p.35).

Applications to the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA):
 * 1) · Decision making begins with an analysis of values and abilities (MIQ), then analysis of the ability patterns (GATB) and value patterns of several occupations
 * 2) · Individuals will compare each occupation to the extent at which they can perform the job satisfactorily and the occupation will satisfy their needs
 * 3) · Make predictions about the celerity, pace, endurance and rhythm of the worker and work environment
 * 4) · Consider whether a person takes an active (ability to make the work environment more responsive to the workers needs) or reactive approach (when an individual changes themselves to respond to the perceived demands of the work environment)
 * 5) · Counselors can assist individuals to compare their occupational ability patterns, needs, and values to values in the Minnesota Occupational Classification System
 * 6) · Counseling and teaching individuals enables greater work satisfaction · Increased exposure to this information and assessment providers greater opportunity for the individual

Status and Use of MTWA
 * Not a widely practiced theory due to its complexity
 * Similar to Holland's Theory
 * congruence term by Holland and correspondence term by MTWA have the same meaning
 * but no empirical data to support
 * The testing process may involve many hours if the GTAB is included
 * Reading issues and predictive validity of the results and inventories for cultural and racial minorities are still unresolved
 * Best for practitioners to think of TWA as a work in progress
 * To understand work adjustment, the structure of the work environment and the characteristics of the worker must be known

MTWA Career Counseling Process (Brown, 2012, p. 36):
 * 1) Assess ability patterns using the General Aptitude Test Battery.
 * 2) Assess needs and values using the Minnesota Importance Questionnaire. The results will provide clients with a list of up to 180 occupations that match their needs.
 * 3) Assist individuals in comparing their occupational ability patterns, needs and values with those in the Minnesota Occupational Classification System.
 * 4) Confirm that the outcome of this process benefits both the worker via increased job satisfaction and the employer by increased satisfactoriness in job performance.

Values-Based Theory of Occupational Choice "Brown built on the work of Rokeach, Super, Beck and others to formulate a a holistic model of career and life-role choice making" (Brown, 2012,p.37). "Values in life role choices and outcomes: A conceptual model" (1996), " A values-based approach to facilitating career transitions" (1995)

Main points:
 * Values (cultural values, Socioeconomic status [SES], group influence, discrimination, gender and aptitudes all influence career choice.
 * Values--beliefs that are experienced by the individual as standards regarding how he or she should function
 * Values form the basis for goal setting
 * Values can influence importance and clarify goals if they are crystallized and prioritized.
 * Values are recognized representations of needs that, when developed, provide standards for behavior.
 * Values are a major factor in motivation because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects.
 * Values development can be faulty with a result that the person has a distorted view of normative standards and modes of interaction within roles and the broader community.

For a job to be satisfying, individuals must engage in activities that they believe are worthwhile and include their values such as: -Doing that is action oriented self expression (Brown, 2012, p. 38)
 * Human nature - Human beings are good, bad, or neither (Brown, 2012, p.38)
 * Person-nature relationship: nature dominates people/vice versa, living in harmony with nature is important
 * Time orientation: time experienced as past, present, future, or circular; orientation to changes activity
 * Activity - Being, that is, spontaneous self-expression, being-in-becoming, that is controlled self expression
 * Self control: it is important to control one's thoughts and emotions
 * Social relationships- Individualism is valued and the individual is the most important social unit (Brown, 2012, p.38)
 * Collateral--also known as filial piety, collateral lifestyle is highly or moderately valued
 * Allocentrism- important to put the concerns of the group ahead of the concerns of the individual (Brown, 2012, p.38)

__Propositions of Brown's Values-based theory (which show the influence of values)__
 * Main underlying assumption:**
 * Cultural and work values are the primary variables that influence the occupational choice-making process, the occupation chosen, and the resulting satisfaction with the success of the chosen occupation
 * Enculturation--process by which individuals incorporate the beliefs and values of their cultural group and form value systems; likely to occur as a result of modeling, reinforcement, and experience (Brown, 2012, p. 38).
 * Monoculturalism is a result of enculturation. This is when people incorporate the values and beliefs of one culture.
 * Bi-enculturation/mulitenculturation: beliefs of two or more cultures are internalized. May happen as a result of being part of a bi-cultural or multicultural family or acculturation resulting from sustained contact with other cultural group (Brown, 2012, p. 38)
 * If individualism is valued, "highly prioritized work values are the most important determinants of career choice"
 * Self-efficacy becomes a constraining factor in the occupational decision-making process of individuals who value individualism when the options being considered require widely divergent skills and abilities (p.40).
 * If collectivism is valued, the family's career choice is very influential in the career decision-making process
 * Gender is a major factorin occupations entered by the individuals who value collectivism due to "sex-stereotyped perceptions of occupations."
 * Males and females and people from other cultures are representative at various levels in the workforce because of different value systems (More examples are listed on pp. 40-41 of Brown's text)
 * Cultural values regarding activity do not constrain the occupational decision-making process when taken individually.
 * Occupational tenure is partially the result of the match between the cultural and work values of the worker, supervisors and colleagues.
 * Occupational success is related to many different factors including:
 * Job-related skills acquired in formal and informal educational settings
 * Job-related aptitudes and skills
 * Socioeconomic status (SES)
 * Participation in the work role
 * The extent to which discrimination is experienced regardless of which social relationship value is held
 * The process of choosing an occupation value involves "estimates":
 * One's abilities and values
 * The skills and abilities required to be successful in an occupation
 * The work values that the occupational alternatives being considered satisfy

Factors that lead individuals to lower their expectations of success if they act on their values
 * mental health problems
 * history of personal/cultural group discrimination
 * lack of information
 * poverty (Brown, 2012, p.39)
 * self-efficacy.

**a)** **Status and Use of Brown’s Values-Based Theory** i) Newness of theory makes it difficult to anticipate what its impact might be  ii) Stimulate more thinking about the importance of cultural values and the need to consider cultural differences when examining the occupational choice-making process


 * Developmental Theories (Brown Ch. 2)**
 * Based to some degree on the assumptionthat the factors that influence career choice and development are related to stages of personal and psychological development (Brown, p. 29)
 * Tend to be more inclusive constructs
 * More concerned with longitudinal expressions of career behaviors
 * Inclined to highlight the importance of self-concept of how career behavior develops and changes over time


 * ===Major theorists:===**
 * · Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma**
 * · Super**
 * · Gottfredson**


 * ===Basic Premises of Developmental Theories:===**
 * 1) Focus on stages of development (e.g. childhood or adolescence)**
 * 2) Focus on biological, psychological, sociological, and cultural factors that influence career choice, adjustments to and changes/withdrawal in career**

Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma (1951)Vocational choice is influenced by 4 factors: 1) the reality factor--the influence of the individual's perce ption of the real world on his or her choice of occupation 2) the influence of the educational process 3) the emotional factor 4) individual values

Don Super Life-Span, Life Space**

 * Often described as a "segmented" theory consisting of several related propositions
 * The hope is that an integrated theory will ultimately emerge
 * It plays multiple different roles throughout the life-span

14 Propositions:
1) People differ in abilities,values, interests, traits, needs, personalities and self concepts. Within each person are traits or abilities so pronounced that often they seem to caricature the individual. (p. 42). 2) People are qualified for a number of occupations by virtue of their characteristics; The range of abilities, personality characteristics, and other traits is so wide that every person has within his or her makeup the requisites for success in many occupations (p. 42). 3) Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits allowing for a variety of occupations as well as a variety of individuals in each occupation. For each ability or trait required in the performance of a particular occupation, we might expect to find a modal quantity that best fits the nature of the work (p. 42). 4) Vocational preference and competencies change with time and experience; self-concepts are increasingly stable beginning in late adolescence until late maturity; as individual's exercise certain skills or proficiency, they may increase or expand them to a higher level (p. 42). 5) Process of change is a series of life stages characterized as a sequence of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline __Growth__: psychological/physical __Exploration__: awareness of working is an aspect of life __Establishment__: "trial and error" period. __Maintenance__: attempts to improve the current situation __Decline__:"pre-retirement" doing the minimal in order to keep one's job. 6) the nature of career pattern is determined by a number of factors including parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality, and opportunity; All factors in the individual's experimental background contribute to attitudes and behaviors (p. 44). 7) success in coping with environmental demands depends on career maturity; Super identifies career maturity as a group of physical, psychological, and social characteristics that represent the individual's readiness and ability to face and deal with developmental problems and challenges (p. 45). 8) career maturity is a hypothetical construct 9) life stage development can be guided partly by the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and development of self-concept. Individuals can be helped to move toward a satisfying vocational choice in two ways: (1) by helping them to develop abilities and interests and (2) by helping them to acquire an understanding of their strengths and weaknesses so they can make satisfying choices (p. 45). 10) career development is developing and implementing occupational self-concepts; As the individual develops and matures, he or she acquires a mental picture of self-a self concept. Each person attempts to maintain or enhance a favorable self-concept and thus is led toward those activities that permit him or her to keep or improve the desired self-image (p.46). 11) several factors influence the process of compromise between individual and social factors (values, interests, etc.) 12) work and life satisfaction depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, etc.- The individual who finds pleasure and satisfaction in work does so because the position held permits characteristics and values to be used in a way that is seen as important (p.50). 13) work satisfaction is proportional to the degree to which the person has been able to implement self-concepts- The relationship of the work situation to the individual's role must be thought of in the broad sense (p. 50). Super proposes that the amount of satisfaction is directly related to the extent the job fits the self-concept (p.50). 14) work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization (for some persons this focus is peripheral, incidental, or even nonexistent) p.50
 * __Sub stages:__
 * Fantasy: Unrealistic goals, often related to play. Example: cowboy, astronaut, etc.
 * Tentative: Narrow choices, limited career related information at this time. These are choices are often eliminated because of lack of information.
 * Final sub stage: Choices narrow to only include those in reach.
 * Can be illustrated Super's Life Rainbow

**Super's Life Stages (Maxi-Cycle)** o ** Growth ** - physical and psychological growth; experiences provide a background of knowledge; individual forms attitudes and behavior mechanisms that become important components of the self-concept for much of life. o ** Exploratory ** - realizing occupation is part of life o ** Establishment ** - encounters with actual work; try out decisions and choices made in the exploratory stage. As he or she gains experience and proficiency, the individual becomes stabilized; that is, aspects of this occupation are brought into the self-concept, and the occupation is accepted as one that offers the best chance to obtain those satisfactions that are important (p. 44). o ** Maintenance ** - seek to continue or improve the current occupational situation; Essentially the person is concerned with continuing the satisfying parts of the work situation and revising or changing those unpleasant aspects that are annoying but not so disagreeable that they drive the individual from the field (p. 44). o ** Decline ** - pre-retirement; emphasis on keeping job with minimal standards of output; This period terminates with the individual's withdrawal from the world of work (p. 44). Vocational Development * ** Crystallization ** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 14 and 18, during which people develop overall self-concepts and occupational self-concepts that determine the general direction of their future careers * ** Specification ** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 18 and 21, during which people's broad occupational goals are more narrowly focused toward their eventual life work * ** Implementation ** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 21 and 24, during which workers take steps to learn and enter a trade * ** Stabilization ** - a stage that occurs between the age of 25 and 35, during which workers attempt to demonstrate mastery of their trades * ** Consolidation ** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 35 and retirement, during which workers seek the professional recognition and security commensurate with their ability and seniority The Cycling and Recycling of Developmental Tasks through the Life Span ** (14-25) ** || ** Early ** Source: Brown, D. (2016). //Career Information, Career Counseling, and Career Development// (11th ed.). New York: Pearson.
 * "fantasy" phase: unrealistic and often related to the play life of the individual. (ex: cowboy, movie star, pilot)- These choices are temporary and usually have little, if any, long-term significance for the individual (p. 43).
 * "tentative" phase: individuals narrow choices to a few possibilities (p. 44).
 * "final" phase: still prior to entrance into the world of work, the individual narrows the list further to occupations that are within reach as well as provide essential opportunities to the person (p. 44).
 * ** Life Stage ** || ** Adolescence **
 * Adulthood **
 * (25-45) ** || ** Middle **
 * Adulthood **
 * (45-65) ** || ** Late **
 * Adulthood **
 * (65+) ** ||  ||
 * ** Decline ** || Spending less time engaged in hobbies/interests || Decrease in participation in extracurricular activities/ sports || Focus shifts to essential activities/responsibilities || Reducing hours at work/part-time ||   ||
 * ** Maintenance ** || Confirming that choice of occupation is fitting || Securing desired job/position || Maintaining status and rapport within employment hierarchy || Maintaining interest and hobbies ||   ||
 * ** Establishment ** || Getting started in a chosen field || Settling down in a permanent position || Developing new skills || Trying desired activities or goals (Ex: Doing things on bucket-list) ||   ||
 * ** Exploration ** || Learning more about more opportunities || Finding opportunity to do desired work || Identifying new problems to work on || Exploring retirement options ||   ||
 * ** Growth ** || Developing a realistic self-concept || Learning to relate to others and build working relationships || Accepting one’s limitations || Developing non-occupational roles ||   ||
 * ** Growth ** || Developing a realistic self-concept || Learning to relate to others and build working relationships || Accepting one’s limitations || Developing non-occupational roles ||   ||

1) Child (son/daughter) 2) Student 3) Worker 4) Spouse 5) Parent 6) Homemaker 7) Citizen 8) Leisurite 9) Annuitant (pensioner/retiree) "These roles emphasize the lifelong aspects of career development"(Brown, 2012, p. 47). ==Terms and Concepts from Super== 1) R ** ole-salience ** - The relative importance one places on a particular role in one's life (e.g., student, homemaker, etc.) leads to life structure 2) **Self-concept-** An internalized personal view of self
 * Life-Career Rainbow (Major Life Roles) **

2) P ** ersonal construct ** - An extended definition of "self-concept" which includes not only an internalized personal view of self but also the individual's view of the situation or condition in which he or she exists. Essential because surrounding situations impact a person's behavior and self-understanding 3) C ** areer maturity ** - An individual's readiness to cope with the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted because of society's expectations of people who have reached that stage of development

-The objective of the career counseling process would be the development of career maturity, which can be placed in six components, as measured by the ** Career Development Inventory **.
 * Status and Use of Super's Theory **

- This theory has a number of applications, it has been used as framework for career development programs across k-12 The **6** components are:
 * Growth is k- middle school (sub-dividable into curiosity, fantasies, interests, and capacities)
 * Explorations age 14-18 (here choice becomes crystallized)
 * It also can be used as a basis for career counseling (Brown, 2012, p.48)

1. ** Career Planning (CP): ** The career-mature individual is engaged in the planning process.The career planning scale is an effective tool that reveals how persons perceive themselves in relation to the planning process. 2. ** Career Exploration (CE): ** Clients engage in exploring careers. This scale is combined with the CP scale to produce a career development attitude (CDA) scale. 3. ** Decision Making (DM): ** Mature individuals know how to make decisions and have the confidence to do so. 4. ** World-of-Work Information (WWI): ** The most obvious component of this scale involves having accurate information about work. Super believed that decision makers should have some knowledge of time. 5. ** Knowledge of Preferred Occupations (PO): ** Following the career development inventory (CDI) people choose 20 occupations and answer questions about the jobs and qualifications needed to enter a particular occupation. 6. ** Career Orientation (COT): ** Total score on the CDI, with the exception of the PO. This can be considered a global measure of career maturity.
 * African American are likely to be lower in career maturity than white persons
 * Not well constructed because the various segment are not cemented together
 * It has been used as the framework for career development programs for children and adolescents
 * Weakness in application to Asian American students because they are more likely to have a dependent decision-making style

** Linda Gottfredson ** ** Theory of Circumscription & Compromise **

__ Theory focuses on how people develop their career goals; based on **4 basic assumptions**: __ 1) the career development process begins in childhood 2) career aspirations are attempts to implement one's self-concept 3) career satisfaction depends on the degree to which the career is congruent with self-perceptions 4) people develop occupational stereotypes that guide them in the selection process


 * -Social Self + Psychological Self = Self-Concept **
 * Social self: made up of aspect of self-perception associated with intelligence, social status and gender
 * Psychological self (**MORE IMPORTANT DETERMINANT):** made up of variables such as values and personality variables


 * - ** People develop cognitive maps of occupations according to:
 * ** Masculinity/femininity of the occupation **
 * ** Prestige of the occupation **
 * ** Fields of work **


 * - ** Of the three factors mentioned above, sex-typed assigned to the occupation and the prestige associated with it are the most important in career-choice making process

__ **CONTRIBUTIONS OF GOTTFREDSON'S THEORY** __
 * men and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations, because people develop cognitive maps of occupations (masculinity/femininity of job)
 * offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development
 * main focus on career development as it relates to the types of compromises that people make
 * proposes a hierarchical level of choice related to distance from self-concept

As children grow, and develop perceptions of themselves and occupational fields, they begin to narrow (**circumscribe**) their range of occupations based on estimates of: **COMPATIBILITY** (sex type, prestige, interests) and **ACCESSIBILITY**
 * Gottfredson believes that once self-perceptions are developed and occupations discounted as incompatible with them, it is unlikely that the process will be reversed unless some type of intervention occurs, such as an influential person telling young people that they have the intellectual capacity to perform the tasks associated with entering the occupation (p, 50).

**a)** **Status and Use of Gottfredson’s Theory** i) Continues to stimulate needed research illuminating the role of gender and status on occupational choice ii) Found that girls preferred feminine occupations to masculine occupations in young children iii) Younger boys preferred masculine occupations with higher status, but that older boys’ preferences were influenced by status alone iv) Career development programs should be designed to break down sex-role stereotypes and limitations in occupational choice based on social status (1) Elementary school programs should focus on exploring a full range of occupations  (a) To prevent premature circumscription  (b) Provide a basis for later occupational choice  v) Application can involve diagnosing developmental problems vi) Occupational information plays a major role in this approach vii) Strength: provides career counselors a way to conceptualize how occupations may be limited by sex-role perceptions viii) Application to clients who do not have independent social values is problematic

If forced to compromise to an occupation, people will give consideration to sex-type first, prestige second, and interests third. (Brown, p. 51)

One's final occupational choice is often a compromise because adolescents and adults may give up their most preferred choices in favor of those that are more accessible (Brown, p. 51). **Gottfredson's Terms** 1) ** circumscription - ** process by which children narrow their occupational alternatives by eliminating those that are not acceptable in prestige or sex type 2) ** compromise ** - process by which preferred alternatives are sacrificed because they are inaccessible 3) ** cognitive growth ** - development of increasingly complex cognitive ability during childhood, which influences the cognitive occupational map and self-concept 4) ** self-creation ** - how the experiences that one chooses build upon biologically based characteristics of an individual 5) ** zone of acceptable alternatives ** - the occupations remaining after an individual eliminates occupations due to sex type, intolerably low prestige, or intolerably high effort 6) ** tolerable-effort boundary ** - the highest level of effort considered acceptable among occupational alternatives 7) ** tolerable-level boundary ** - the lowest level of prestige considered acceptable among occupational alternatives 8) ** sex type ** - a limiting boundary within one's zone of acceptable alternatives; it emerges as an influence in **Stage 2**, where children become aware of the sex-appropriateness of different occupations 9) ** prestige ** - a limiting floor and ceiling boundary within one's zone of acceptable alternatives; it emerges as a factor in **Stage 3**, where children become aware of the differential prestige of occupations within society
 * Circumscription: Stages of Development: **
 * ** Stage 1 (Age 3-5): ** **Orientation to size and power**- children are laying the groundwork for later sex-role stereotypes as they observe play activities, orient themselves to same sex adults, and learn about activities, such as occupations.
 * ** Stage 2 (Age 6-8): ** **Orientation to sex roles**- Children are not aware of social class at this stage, but they are beginning to develop perceptions of what is "acceptable" for men and women (p. 50).
 * ** Stage 3 (Age 9-13): ** **Orientation to social valuation** (awareness of social class, development of preferences for level of work, differences in preferences by ability level and social class. By the end of this period, numerous occupations will be eliminated as the circumscription process continues. Once eliminated an occupation is unlikely to be considered without intervention (p. 50).
 * ** Stage 4 (Ages 14+): Choices Explored ** Orientation to the internal, unique self (perception of self and others).
 * [[image:http://www.sidewaysthoughts.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Gottfredson-theory-of-circumscription-and-compromise-710x419.jpg width="609"]]


 * Reference ** Brown, D. (2012). Career Information, Career Counseling, And Career Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.