Brown+Chapter+5

__**Learning Theory-Based and Socioeconomic Theories of Career Choice and Development and Their Applications**__


 * Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory (Learning Theory)**

__**Krumboltz's Theory of Happenstance and Decision Making**__ The four factors that influence career-development 1) Genetic Endowment and Special Abilities- Inherited characteristics can be restrictive or facilitate certain developments, such as Intelligence. 2) Environmental Conditions and Events- Cultural and Sociological factors be out of the control of the individuals, but it can carry them through the environment. 3) Learning Experiences- All previous learning experiences influence the career and educational decisions of an individual. 4) Task Approach Skills (TAS)- Performance standards and values and how they influence certain reactions in different situations.

__**Status and use of Krumboltz's Theory**__ Even though Krumboltz's approach only attracted a small quantity of attention from researchers, it has a good amount of merit today especially with deprived and insignificant groups of individuals in our society. This is done through the use of positive reinforcement on clients based in negative environments. His approach can be applied to a variety of genders and ethnic minorities who have individualistic perspectives. Krumboltz's theory can be very useful for those who fear discrimination in society. Self-efficacy beliefs and expectations influence a person's interest. Factors such as discrimination and economic values also play a part in career development. Lastly career development is also influenced by education and previous experiences in the occupational field.

For more information on Krumboltz and his theory check the link Krumboltz Theory.

__//**A Social Cognitive Perspective on Careers**//__ The basis of placing a larger amount of cognitive perspectives to career development rather than just the experiences one encountered. The interaction between people and their environments are highly dynamic. Interests and behaviors are influenced by several factors such as gender, sexual orientation, race, etc.

__**Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT)**__ SCCT was proposed by Lent, Brown and Hackett. Lent, Brown and Hackett proposed such theory using Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. They wanted to research the process of how individuals create interests in specific career choices, their selection process and the performance. SCCT looks into a person’s experiences and how it guides their behavior and interests toward a career choice while taking into account the personal abilities, values and beliefs of their own lives. SCCT takes into account a person’s economic and social factors and the influence it has on career decisions as well as a person's beliefs and growth of sel f-efficacy over time. It also proposes that a person’s career choice is heavily influence on four major components of beliefs they are:
 * 1) Personal performance accomplishments
 * 2) Vicarious learning
 * 3) Social persuasion
 * 4) Physiological states and reactions.

When a person experiences barriers, such as their socioeconomic status, ethnicity, gender or age, they tend to form a negative expectation that can lower their self-efficacy. "Self-efficacy beliefs are dynamic, ever-changing self-perceptions that individuals hold about their abilities to perform particular tasks." Brown, 2016, p.91) Central Propositions: For more information on SCCT - click on Social Cognitive Career Theory
 * 1) People are influenced by and have influence on their environment. (relationship is "highly dynamic")
 * 2) "Career-related interests and behavior are influenced by several aspects of the persons: gender, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, disabilities, behavior, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, goals and genetically determined characteristics. Contextual variables, including the general culture; community variables, such as educational opportunities, family make-up, and specific culture influences; and learning experiences produce self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations" (Brown, 2016, p.92)
 * 3) Interest development is a direct reflection of one's self-efficacy beliefs and personal expectations - SES and other contextual variables add obstacles to this development.
 * 4) career pursuits can be restricted or encouraged by physical characteristics, and environmental variables which also influence one's self-efficacy.
 * 5) **Direct influences** on career choice and implementation: discrimination, economic variables that influence supply and demand, and the culture of the decision maker. **Indirect influences**: chance happenings.
 * "Lent (2013) suggests that economic variables may be a large factor in erecting barriers to acting on interests (Brown, 2016, p.92).
 * 1) People with the highest levels of ability and the strongest self-efficacy beliefs perform at the highest level
 * "...altered continuously as individuals interact with the environment" (Brown, 2016, p.92)

__//**A Career Information-Processing Model of Career Choice (Learning Theory)**//__

Why C.I.P used for?:
 * Finding a career
 * Resolving career related problems
 * Making a career choice

Decision Status Taxonomy: 1. Decided 2. Undecided 3. Indecisive

Pyramid of Information Processing:

Executive Processing Domain Decision-Making Domain Knowledge of Domain (Self and Occupational)


 * Knowledge of Domain**: interest, skills, values
 * Decision-Making Domain:** the client and counselor uses the C.A.S.V.E during this process

The decision-making process can be subsumed under the acronym CASVE. __**C**__ommunication - phase begins with a signal, inside or outside, that a problem exists __**A**__spects - individual tries to determine the aspects of the problem __**S**__ynthesis - individual generates potential solutions & realistic options __**V**__aluing- a cost-benefits analysis is conducted based on the individuals value system
 * E**xecuted - planes are developed and executed


 * Executive Processing Domain:** self-talk, self-awareness, and monitoring and control

The Career information-processing model (CIP) was first presented in 1991 and revised in 2002 by Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, and Lenz. CIP relies on the brand of learning theory that focuses on information processing. Some of Meichenbaum (1977) work was used as the base of some of the intervention and recommendations with career problems.

People develop two types of knowledge: //Occupational knowledge// //Self-knowledge//: Peterson & colleagues (2002) theorize that the development of self-knowledge involves the interpretation of past events and a cognitive reconstruction of those events. (What have I learned about myself and occupations that I can apply to this situation?)

The Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) was developed to diagnose various aspects of decision-making problems.

Apex: Thinking about my decisions Mid-Level: Knowing how I make decisions Base of the pyramid: Knowing myself & Knowing my options

__**Status & Use of the CIP model**__ The application of the CIP model begins with assessing the readiness of individuals to make well-reasoned career choices and their cognitive and affective abilities to make those choices. When assessing the readiness, career counselors should examine four factors:
 * 1) a high level of self-knowledge and willingness to use that knowledge in the decision-making process
 * 2) Willingness to explore the world of work
 * 3) Motivation to learn about and engage in the decision-making process
 * 4) Awareness of how negative thoughts influence problem solving and the willingness to seek assistance when needed

Peterson & his colleagues (2002) outlined a 7-step model for career counseling:
 * 1) Conduct initial interview
 * 2) Conduct preliminary assessment
 * 3) Mutually define problem & analyze causes
 * 4) Formulate goals
 * 5) Develop individual learning plan
 * 6) Implement individual learning plan
 * 7) Evaluate goal Attainment

There is little information about the application of the CIP model to racial and ethnic minorities, people who are disabled, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transsexual clients. Furthermore, it may be intrusive so it may not be appropriate for use with cultural minorities.

CIP seems to be effective with veterans, women, and people that have ADHD.

__//**Socioeconomic Theories**//__
 * Status Attainment Theory:** the idea that one's family's socioeconomic status influence the individual's decisions about education and careers
 * some criticize that this theory is too simple
 * Dual Labor Market Theory:** the idea that there are two types of businesses providing employment in the labor field; core and peripheral
 * //Core:// companies that have well-developed, internal career paths and offer opportunities for upward mobility
 * //Peripheral:// companies that utilize employees seasonally or temporarily