Brown+Chapter+1+and+Class+Notes

__** Brown, Ch. 1 **__ Theories provide a conceptual glue. A theory itself is not reality, it helps us understand reality. **David Tiedeman (p 13, Brown) (Brown, 2016, p.6)** __**Origination of Career** **Devel****opment:**__ Career development evolved from four different disciplines. Career Development Theories work to answer: __Definition of Terms__ 9. **Underemployed**- workers who are employed in positions that do not allow them to use the job-related knowledge and skills they have developed 10. **Discouraged workers**- those who have given up searching for a job. 1.6 million people fall under this category.
 * Foundations of Career Development Practice **
 * The Global Economy and its implications for employment in the United States
 * Americans will soon have to face the reality of finding jobs outside of the United States
 * The Factors that Flattened the World economy
 * Fall of the Berlin Wall (opened up Eastern European economics)
 * Internet (created a digital divide)
 * Outsourcing and off-shoring
 * Competitive drive of free market
 * Treaties (NAFTA, European Union, U.S and Chinese trade agreements)
 * China's economic development
 * The language of career development
 * The reasons why careers and career development are important in the fight for social justice
 * The major events in the history of career development
 * Developed the Information System for Vocational Decision (ISVD), which incorporated much of the career counseling processes in their programming.
 * Current desktop programs (DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS) are descendants of programs created like the ISVD, but are much easier to use now with modern technology.
 * 1) Differential Psychology- it's extension to work and occupation (ideographically)
 * 2) Personality- the idea that individuals possess certain unique amounts of measurable traits.
 * 3) Sociology-the idea that social movement, class, and organization must be considered
 * 4) Developmental Psychology- the idea that life is dynamic and consideration of a career must take into account the theme and seasons of a life.
 * Why we choose the work we do?
 * How should we make our vocational choice?
 * What is work and what role should it play in our lives?
 * What makes us happy with our choice?
 * Career Development theory indicates satisfaction is implied in good decision making: that is if you made a good choice you will be happy with your work.
 * 1) **Position** - a group of tasks performed by one individual; thus, as many positions exist as the number of individuals working (Shartle, 1959)
 * 2) **Job** - a group of similar positions in a single business (Shartle, 1959)
 * 3) **Occupation** - a group of similar jobs in several businesses (Shartle, 1959)
 * 4) **Vocation** -- some career counselors use this word synonymously with job or occupation, but many career counselors reject the term because it is associated with the idea that people are "called," sometimes by God, to their occupations instead of being active participants in choosing them
 * 5) **Vocational choice** - the process of selecting a career
 * 6) **Career** - the totality of work one does in a lifetime (Sears, 1982)
 * 7) includes paid or unpaid occupations or jobs
 * 8) **Career development**--the lifelong process involving psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors, as well as chance factors that interact to influence the career of an individual (Brown, p. 15) (Brown, 2016, p.8)
 * 9) **Career choice** -- counselors who reject the term "vocation" use the term "career choice" for the process of selecting a career
 * 10) **Career intervention** -- a deliberate act aimed at enhancing some aspect of a person's career development, including influencing the career decision-making process (Spokane, 1991). Career interventions include career guidance, career development programs, career education, career counseling, career information, and career coaching (Brown, p. 15)
 * **a) Career guidance** -- includes all career development interventions which are organized, systematic efforts designed to influence various aspects of the career development of a client group, such as high school or college students. Career guidance programs may include a systematic attempt to dispense career information, activities to enhance self-awareness, career planning classes or individual career counseling, job placement, and so forth.
 * **b) Career education** -- a systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults with various educational strategies, such as providing occupational information, taking field trips to businesses and industries, having guest speakers who represent various occupations talk about their jobs, establishing career internships and apprenticeships.
 * **c) Career development programs** -- term that is replacing "career education" and "career guidance"
 * **d) Career counseling** -- service provided to a single client or groups of clients who seek assistance with career choice or career adjustment problems.
 * The process of career counseling involves establishing rapport, assessing the nature of the problem, goal setting, intervention, and termination.
 * The outcome of career counseling should represent some of the following: career selection, increased certainty about a career choice that was decided before the counseling began, enhanced self-understanding, increased knowledge of one or multiple jobs, new strategies for adapting to work roles, new strategies to balance one's work role with their life roles, and more positive mental health. (Brown, 2016, p.9)
 * **e) Career information** -- labor market information examples include the //Occupational Outlook Handbook// and O*NET (the occupational Information Network)
 * **f) Career coaching** -- used in business to describe managers' efforts to facilitate the career development of employees. It helps employees identify opportunities that exist within their work settings and prepares them to enter new positions (Hall et al., 1986)
 * Bench (2003) suggests that career coaches help clients clarify their values, become aware of choices available to them, set goals, and move toward meeting those goals, develop management skills, manage transitions, develop job search skills, and simply be more effective in their current jobs. Bench (2003) envisions career coaching as a private practice enterprise, whereas Hall and his colleagues (1986) perceive career coaching as a managerial function that occurs in the confines of a business.
 * When added to employment statistics rate reaches 17.3 million
 * NOTE for terms: position, job, occupation and career are often used interchangeably. The separate definitions for position, job and occupation were created by Shartle and accepted by the NCDA.

__**Alternative Models to Career Development (Brown,2012, p. 7)**__
 * Traditional Model-**individualism, based on the formation of goals, does not focus on marginalized populations or societal factors that affect career development (sexism, discrimination, racism, politics, and socioeconomic status). Described as a value-free model; it is one that focuses on individualism and mediocracy. Under this model, people can choose to better themselves, and carry out that goal.
 * Empowerment Model**- based on feminist theory. Defined as being the second candidate to underpin psychological practice or career development. Striving for equal power and status for all. Equal access to the many benefits of society is the goal.
 * Postmodernism**- subjective, context needs to be viewed, the individual is unique.
 * Emancipatory Communitarianism**- an individual and systems approach; professionals who use this model endorse values of social justice, human diversity, establishing mutual goals, taking part in political action for the unfairness of the systems that affect students and workers, and advocates for marginalized clients.

__**Social Justice**__

Globalization has benefited a lot of countries by people having access to global markets that have goods and services at inexpensive prices, that are also a lot cheaper to produce in the US. However, //Stilgitz// identified how poorer countries in Africa, South America, and Asia have had worker exploitation because of globalization and pollution has been increased as well. The government needs to provide infrastructure that includes education, healthcare, and a social network that helps people weather job loss and other personal disasters.
 * Definition: aimed at economic equity (for e.g., healthcare, education, and eliminating the "digital divide" - division of opportunity for those who can not afford internet)
 * Social justice cannot be fully realized unless people have meaningful jobs
 * the opportunity to prepare and enter these jobs is missing
 * Economic equity is unrealized because of **wage differentials** between men and women, and between blacks and whites
 * Adapting social justice view is **difficult because individualism is a core value** in U.S.
 * Traditional approach to career development criticized as "value-free" and embracing individualism, **goal-oriented change** (people can choose to better themselves) **is possible, BUT THIS IGNORES FACTORS OF OPPRESSION, DISCRIMINATION, MARGINALIZATION, and inequitable distribution of power and money in U.S. society (Brown, p.7)**
 * __Status Attainment Model__: **family status and cognitive variables** (intelligence, attitudes about education/occupations) are transmitted by family which **influences educational attainment**, the educational attainment leads to the **level of occupation attained which leads to earnings** IMPORTANT ASPECT OF MODEL: people begin the race for job attainment at vastly different places
 * Peterson and Gonzalez argue that the Protestant (Judeo-Christian) work ethic is anti-women and is guilty of "blaming the victim" in relation to impoverished individuals. It also lacks cultural applicability.

Statistics that demonstrate the need for advocacy for poor and marginalized individuals:
 * In July 2009, the Bureau of Labor Statistic reported that whites had a 8.7 % unemployment rate, African Americans had a 15 % unemployment rate, and Hispanic Americans had a 12 % unemployment rate
 * In 2003, here were the following median incomes for families of different races:
 * White families: $43,318
 * African American families: $30,000
 * Hispanic Americans: $33,000
 * Percentage of families living in poverty were as follows:
 * White families: 10.5 %
 * African American families: 24.7 %
 * Hispanic families: 21.8 %

__Skills Needed By Counselors to Face Social Injustice:__
 * 1) Consulting
 * 2) Collaboration
 * 3) Systematic Assessment
 * 4) Leadership
 * 5) Advocacy

I**__mplications of Globalization__**
 * Stiglitz and Friedman
 * Global economy is a reality, for the better, and sometimes for the worse, and it is here to stay
 * Mentioned in Friedman's book: //The World is Flat- US workers will increasingly find themselves looking for jobs outside of this country and need to prepare for that to happen eventually.//
 * U.S. has world's largest economy
 * In order to take advantage of the opportunities presented by the global economy, people need to have governments that provide an infrastructure that includes education, healthcare and a social work network that helps them weather personal disasters such as job loss.
 * The unemployment rate in other countries began to rise as the overall purchasing power of U.S. consumes declined exacerbated by
 * credit card debt
 * the inability of home owners to make mortgage payments
 * high level of foreclosure by lending institutions
 * Labor cost differences have received the greatest attention and blame for offshoring and outsourcing
 * Probably because the data is readily available
 * Limited environmental restrictions overseas also a factor.


 * __Organizations and Publications__**
 * The National Career Development Association, a division of the American Counseling Association, was founded in 1913 as the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA). The NVGA publishes the //Career Development Quarterly.// Career counselors, school counselors, and counseling psychologists who are interested in career development often affiliate with this division.
 * Divison 17, Counseling Psychology, of the APA- publishes the //Journal of Counseling Psychology//, which features a section on career development
 * //Journal of Vocational Behavior//- a journal not affiliated with a professional organization, has traditionally been dominated by counseling psychologists
 * //Journal of Career Development-// also not affiliated with a professional organization and focuses on career development
 * Association of Training and Development (ASTD)- has a special interest group that focuses primarily on career development within business and industry

__**Why People Work**__
 * Primarily an economic enterprise; so people can pay for goods and services
 * Provides status, recognition, affiliation, and other psychological and sociological elements in participation with a complex society
 * Self-esteem- people feel a sense of mastery in dealing with objects of work, and their self-esteem is enhanced because they are engaging in activities that produce something other people value (p. 18).
 * One way in which an individual can relate to society (p.17).
 * Satisfaction derived from work is an important determinant in an individual's total satisfaction (p. 18).
 * Create products that are essential for participation in a complex society
 * Throughout history, there have been religious reasons that are incorporated into a person's motivation to work. At one point, working was looked at as being the only way to serve God. While this idea could be outdated, it can also be the basis of for certain concepts and beliefs regarding to working.

__**Results of National Career Development Association (NCDA) Surveys**__
 * 7 out of 10 workers would get more information about jobs if they were starting over
 * University professors, mathematicians, biologists, and chemists show highest percentage of practitioners stating that they would choose the same occupation again.
 * Unskilled and blue-collar workers show the lowest percentages
 * White-collar and skilled workers fall in the middle
 * Only 4 in 10 adults have careers as a result of a conscious plan
 * These findings indicate a need for more career development services

(Chapter 1 class notes and Brown, 2012, p. 18)

__**The Future of Work**__


 * SKILLS NEEDED BY FUTURE WORKERS:
 * Demand for people who can create something out of nothing
 * Ex: authors and musicians produce a product using minimal raw materials
 * Academic skills required for new workers to be successful will escalate (p. 20).
 * Healthcare workers- increase in jobs in healthcare due to an increase in access to affordable healthcare.
 * Scientists to re-engineer and increase food supply
 * Technology to convert saltwater into drinkable water
 * Workers will not only change jobs more often, they will change the types of jobs they do
 * Outsourcing
 * virtually endless supply of workers in China, Africa, Asia and Europe
 * Worldwide economy will continue to produce unskilled, primarily service jobs
 * can be replaced by technology
 * need for workers skilled in helping displaced workers will grow
 * __Importance of work__
 * $$ (to pay for goods and services)
 * status
 * recognition
 * affiliation
 * self esteem when work is satisfactory
 * products (psychological or sociological)
 * helps individuals relate to society

__Factors that decrease an individual from the "working poor" category:__ __Future Changes as a result of future work:__
 * full time employment
 * higher education
 * no children
 * older than 25 years
 * male
 * Early retirement may become a thing of the past
 * New jobs will be created
 * Old jobs will disappear
 * The physical nature of work will change (we may not all work in the same physical space anymore)

Student Learning Exercise (p. 5) //Friedman & Stilgitz// emphasized the existence of global economy as an interconnectedness of economies across the world. When a country with a major economy suffers, other countries suffer as well. This usually turns into an increase in unemployment rate. > (1) __The fall of the Berlin Wall__ (2) __The internet__ (3) __The advent of outsourcing and off-shoring__ (5) __Treaties such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)__ (6) __China's move from an economy rooted in communism to one that encourages entrepreneurship & accumulation of wealth__
 * Friedman describes global economy is "flat" which explains how the economy once made up of discrete local economies, has merged into a global economy.
 * Global economy has devised up new terminology:
 * **Off-shoring & Outsourcing****:** jobs that were once protected by a countries borders, and protective tariff, are being offered to workers around the world, making it more competitive in the job market.
 * **Wage Differential:** labor costs in other countries are much lower, which increases the profit margin off of goods and services.
 * **In sourcing:** the placement of jobs and businesses in the U.S. by other countries.
 * Factors That Led to Globalization:**
 * Opened up economics of Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union
 * A commercial force that developed a digital divide amongst the richer and poorer countries
 * outsourcing is taking a workplace activity once performed inside the country/organization and moving it outside the country/organization.
 * (4) __The competitive drive of the free market system (the profit motive)__
 * NAFTA reduced trade barriers among US, Canada, and Mexico
 * Revealed a new classification system needed to compare economic relationships among the US, Canada and Mexico.
 * The North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), developed by the U.S. Economic Classification Policy Comittee (ECPC), Statistics Canada, and Mexico's Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Geografia collects economic data to compare among the countries to help monitor NAFTA's impact

__1883:__ Salmon Richards publishes //Vocophy,// which calls for vocophers to be placed in every town. He envisioned the role of the vocophers as providing vocational assistance to all. __1895:__ George Merrill experiments with vocational guidance at the California School of Mechanical Arts in San Francisco. __1898-1907:__ Jesse B. Davis instructs students about the world of work. __1905:__ Frank Parsons establishes Breadwinners' Institute, a continuing education center for immigrants and youth, in the Civic Service House in Boston. __1907:__ Davis begins to encourage teachers to attempt to relate the subject matter they are teaching to vocations, to make it easier to grasp the concept. __1908 (about):__ Anna Y. Reed and Eli Weaver develop and organize vocational guidance programs in the schools they were affiliated with. __1908:__ Philanthropist Mrs. Quincy Shaw organizes the Boston Guidance Bureau to provide assistance to young people based on the work of Frank Parsons, emphasizing the importance of a systematic approach to choosing a vocation. __1909:__ //Choosing a Vocation// by Frank Parsons is published which includes his tripartite theoretical model. The model is the basis for vocational guidance in the first half of the 20th century. __1913:__ The National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) is established in Grand Rapids, MI. __1917:__ The first group intelligence test, The Army Alpha, is used as the basis for placement in WWI. This is the first of many assessment devices developed in the 1920s and 1930s which become important tools for career counselors to help the people they are working with make career decisions. __1921:__ Publications regarding vocation guidelines began to be available on a regular basis through the journal, //Occupations: The Vocational Guidance Journal.// __1933-1935:__ Employment and educational opportunities for youths and adults are created by New Deal Programs including the Civilian Conservation Corps and Work Progress Administration. __1939:__ The first edition of the //Dictionary of Occupational Titles// is published. __1939:__ E.G. Williamson publishes //How to Counsel Students//, one of the early primers regarding career counseling. __1951:__ Ginzberg, Ginzburg, Axelrad, and Herma publish the FIRST theory of career development in their book //Occupational Choice: An Approach to General Theory////.// __1952:__ NVGA begins publishing the //Vocational Guidance Quarterly//, currently published as the //Career Development Quarterly.// __1953:__ Super publishes "A Theory of Vocational Development" in the //American Psychologist.// It is the second developmental theory of career development, but becomes the most influential. __1956:__ Ann Roe published//The Psychology Quarterly// with personality based theories of occupations. __1959:__ Holland publishes "A Theory of Vocational Guidance" in the //Journal of Counseling Psychology.// __1963:__ The Vocational Education Act provides money for vocational guidance to vocational education students. __1982:__ NVGA establishes competencies for career counselors. __1983:__ National Certified Career Counselor Certification is established by the NVGA. __1984:__ NVGA changes its name to National Career Development Association (NCDA) and changes the name of its journal to //Career Development Quarterly//. __1984:__ The National Board for Certified Counselors assumes the management of the National Certified Career Counselor Certification Program. __1987:__ NCDA holds first convention in Florida. __1989:__ NCDA, along with the National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee (NOICC) and the Vocational Education Research Center at Ohio State University, commission the Gallup Organization to poll Americans to ascertain their use of career development services and information, their perceptions of the availability and quality of these services, and their perceptions of various aspects of the workplace, including discrimination. NCDA and NOICC commission similar polls in 1992, 1994, and 2000. __1990:__ American Disabilities Act is passed by Congress, to ensure that this population has equal access to job opportunities and training, like anyone else. __1994:__ School to Work Opportunities Act is passed by Congress, providing impetus for public schools to develop challenging educational programs for all, to relate academic subject matter to work, and to help students in identifying their interests and make educational and career plans. __1994:__ Effort to develop an occupational classification scheme to replace DOT. New system (O*Net) is published 1995-1997 and the transition was completed in 2001. __2000:__ National Board of Certified School Counselors opts to decommission the National Certified Career Counselor Program. __2001:__ NCDA establishes Master Career Counselor membership category as means of credentialing career counselors. __2013:__ NCDA celebrates its 100th anniversary in Boston.
 * __Important Historical Dates__**

__**Judging a Theory**__ A good theory is a roadmap/ guides practice, comprehensive, easy to understand, stimulates further research, includes evidence.
 * 1) Does the theory reflect the real world of humans/children? Face validity- does it make sense?
 * 2) Is the theory supported by convincing evidence? Amicable Skepticism- Think about information
 * 3) Does a theory explain the past and predict future outcomes?
 * 4) Can the theory handle new data and new discoveries?
 * 5) Does the theory stimulate new research?
 * 6) Is a theory clearly understandable? Does it simplify rather than complicate the world?
 * 7) Is the theory self-satisfying? Connects, makes sense, resonance, complete


 * Myths About Career Counseling:**
 * 1) Career counselors can give clients tests that tell them what to do.
 * 2) Work decisions are made separately from other life decisions
 * 3) Career counseling does not address personal concerns
 * 4) Career counselors do not need training or expertise
 * 5) Career counseling is the same for everyone, regardless of cultural context
 * 6) Career counseling is needed only when a decision must be made
 * 7) Career counseling ends when a decision is made.

Brown (2012) states that the need for these type of services is at the highest point since the 1930s when our country was struggling through the times of the Great Depression. Many many people in the United States are out of work. In October 2009 our country's unemployment rate was 10.2%, meaning that 15.7 million people were unemployed. Brown (2012) broke the rate down into categories, like long-term unemployed people, discouraged workers, involuntarily employed part time workers, etc., to depict the differences between the people who are out of work, to give better insight to the unemployment rate itself.
 * The Need for Career Development Services**

Long term unemployed workers (defined as 27 weeks or more)= 5.6 million; 35.6% of the unemployed.

Discouraged workers=1.6 million Involuntarily employed part-time workers= 9.3 million

These numbers only reflect the people who do not currently have a job, or full time work. It does not include people who are not using the knowledge and skills they have developed for their current job position. While there is not data for this statistic, Brown (2012) feels the number would be in the millions because many people are working a job that does not incorporate the skill set they possess and learned.

Having viewed these numbers, the need for career development services is pretty high in demand. They can help to guide and aide people in need of assistance in this area of their life, to better find jobs that people feel they "fit" into, and help those in need of any type of work.

Brown (2016) argues that career development services offer opportunities for __social justice__: "Improving education and eliminating the digital divide remain as major barriers to social justice." "Social justice cannot be fully realized unless people have meaningful jobs." "The biggest challenges lie in the area of helping disenfranchised and marginalized workers to gain meaningful employment in the modern workplace and to get a fair share of the economic benefits available in the economy."

Reference Brown, D. (2012). Career Information, Career Counseling, And Career Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.

Brown, D. (2016). Career information, career counseling, and career development (11th ed.). Boston: Pearson.