Organized+Study+Guide

=** Foundations of Career Development Practice (Brown, Ch. 1): **=

toc
 * 1) **Position** - a group of tasks performed by one individual; thus, as many positions exist as the number of individuals working (Shartle, 1959)
 * 2) **Job** - a group of similar positions in a single business (Shartle, 1959)
 * 3) **Occupation** - a group of similar jobs in several businesses (Shartle, 1959)
 * 4) **Vocation** -- some career counselors use this word synonymously with job or occupation, but many career counselors reject the term because it is associated with the idea that people are "called," sometimes by God, to their occupations instead of being active participants in choosing them
 * 5) **Vocational choice** - the process of selecting a career
 * 6) **Career** - the totality of work one does in a lifetime (Sears, 1982)
 * 7) **Career choice** -- counselors who reject the term "vocation" use the term "career choice" for the process of selecting a career
 * 8) **Career intervention** -- a deliberate act aimed at enhancing some aspect of a person's career development, including influencing the career decision-making process (Spokane, 1991). Career interventions include career guidance, career development programs, career education, career counseling, career information, and career coaching (Brown, p. 15)
 * 9) **Career guidance** -- includes all career development interventions which are organized, systematic efforts designed to influence various aspects of the career development of a client group
 * 10) **Career education** -- a systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults with various educational strategies, such as providing occupational information, taking field trips to businesses and industries, having guest speakers who represent various occupations talk about their jobs, establishing career internships and apprenticeships, etc.
 * 11) **Career development programs** -- term that is replacing "career education" and "career guidance"
 * 12) **Career counseling** -- service provided to a single client or groups of clients who seek assistance with career choice or career adjustment problems
 * 13) **Career information** -- labor market information
 * 14) **Career coaching** -- used in business to describe managers' efforts to facilitate the career development of employees. It helps employees identify opportunities that exist within their work settings and prepares them to enter new positions (Hall et al., 1986)

Status Attainment Theory
· Family status and cognitive variables combine through social-psychological processes to influence educational attainment, which in turn impacts occupational attainment and earnings

Dual Labor Market Theory
· There are two types of businesses in our labor market: core and peripheral · Core firms have internal labor markets that have well-developed career paths and offer opportunities for upward mobility · Peripheral firms make no long-term commitments and have little chance of upward mobility

Race, Gender and Career
· African Americans earn less than whites · Females earn less than males Research shows that there is segregation in the workplace which related to women places in occupations with a lower salary(Brown, 2012, p.73).

3 Tenets of Trait-Factor Theory (Parsons, 1900)
1) Individuals should understand their talents and preferences for certain kinds of work 2) Individuals must develop an understanding of what occupations call for their skills and will satisfy their preference 3) From this, a good career and occupational choice can be found

Assumptions Underlying T-F Approach
1) Vocational development is largely __a cognitive process__; decisions are to be reached by __reasoning__ 2) Occupational choice is a __single event__. (Choice is stressed greatly and development little) 3) There is __a single "right" goal for everyone__ in the choice of vocation. There is little or no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations. 4) A __single type of person works in each job__. (One-person, one-job relationship) 5) There is __an occupational choice available to each individual__.

** P-E Theory **
**Basic Premise:** Person (P) has basic needs and values as does the environment (E). The theory can be used as a "fit" theory as certain characteristics of P would be required to have a good fit with E. The characteristics usually are values/needs or skills.

Underlying Assumptions (Brown, 2016, p.47-48):
1) An individual's __personality is the primary factor in vocational choice__ 2) Interest inventories are in fact personality inventories 3) Individuals develop stereotypical views of occupations that have psychological relevance. These __stereotypes play a major role in occupational choice__. 4) Daydreams about occupations are often precursors to occupational choices. 5) Identity is related to having __a small number of rather focused vocational goals__ 6) To be successful and satisfied in one's career it is necessary to choose an occupation that is __congruent__ with one's personality.

Basic Premises (Class Notes)
1) People can be categorized according to __six personality types__ (RIASEC) 2) Each type consists of relatively distinct characteristics and traits, though there is overlap 3) There are __no pure types__. Each of us possesses characteristics from each type, though most of us resemble one type more than we resemble others 4) Personality types develop as a result of both __genetic__ and __environmental__ influences 5) People __choose careers which are consistent with their personality types__ 6) The closer the two personality types are on the hexagon, the more consistency there is in the individual's interest(class notes (9/11/2013) (Brown, 2016, p.48, Figure 3.1)

Holland's 6 Personality Types & Characteristics (Brown, 2016, p.49)
1) **Realistic** - mechanical, aggressive, strong, opinionated, stubborn - drawn to careers that involved engineering, agriculture, technology, and skilled-trade work. 2) **Investigative** - intelligent, analytical, independent, rational, curious - use intellect to solve problems, drawn to scientific vocations, theoretical tasks, reading, collecting, algebra, foreign language, etc. 3) **Artistic** - independent, creative, nonconformist, abstract, idealist - drawn to careers that involve creativity. 4) **Social** - cooperative, patient, sociable, empathic, understanding - prefer educational, therapeutic, and religious vocations. 5) **Enterprising** - assertive, aggressive, ambitious, confident, controlling - prefer careers in sales and leadership/management positions. 6) **Conventional** - precise, organized, practical, careful, efficient - enjoy vocations that are clerical and computational in nature.

If the code is consistent and differentiated = very influential - First letter is most influential, second and third letter being the second and third most influential personality types.
 * Three letter code produced by these personality types is a Holland Code.

__**Gender** **Differences**__: - Men generally score higher on realistic, investigative, and enterprising scales. -Women tend to score higher on social, artistic, and conventional scales. -Overall, equally predictive for men and women.

Terms Associated with Holland's Theory (Class Notes):
1) **congruence** - the match between a person and a person's environment. A high congruence is thought to be associated with long-term job satisfaction and tenure 2) **differentiation** - the degree of definition of an individual's interests. Interests are well-differentiated when there is a clear distinction between an individual's likes and dislikes. 3) **consistency** - reflection of the internal coherence of an individual's interest in terms of the hexagonal arrangement. 4) **identity** - the clarity of an individual's perceptions of his or her goals and personal characteristics (i.e. interests, talents, etc.)

__**Applications:**__
 * To understand personality
 * To identify tasks and activities that individuals will enjoy and perform well


 * Status and Use: **
 * Exclusively on O*NET
 * Criticized on basis of cultural validity
 * apply cautiously with anyone of non-dominant cultural values


 * List of possible assessments to measure for Holland's personality characteristics:**
 * The Self-Directed Search
 * The Strong Interest Inventory
 * The Harrington-O'Shea Career Decision-Making System, Revised
 * Find your interests
 * The Career Key
 * Interest Profiler
 * Wide Range Interest and Occupation Test

**Purpose of MTWA:**
- A theory of vocational adjustment, __explaining why people stay employed in a particular job__ -Considers both the __internal needs__ of a worker and the __external demands__ on the worker

Basic Premises of MTWA:
1) The worker expects or needs certain rewards from the work he or she does. These may be intrinsic (enjoyment of job, pleasant conditions, etc.) or extrinsic (money, prestige, power). 2) If a job meets the expectations of the worker, the worker is satisfied with the work. This is the first of the two critical elements of vocational adjustment. 3) The work environment demands certain things of the worker (competence, quality, quota of production, certain attitudes and behaviors) 4) If the worker can meet the demands of the work environment in an appropriate way, their work is said to be satisfactory. This is the second element of vocational adjustment.

Work Adjustment Defined:
__Satisfaction__ of the worker's expectations and need + __satisfactoriness__ of the worker to the demands of the work environment = __tenure__, or the state in which a worker remains employed in a job.

** MTWA Terms: **
- Abilities = potential of an individual to develop these skills needed in the work environment - Personality structure = combination of aptitudes and values.
 * Three variables to predict success in workers:**
 * -** Skills = job-related skills an individual offers to the work environment.

- Celerity = the quickness with which workers engage their environment to satisfy their needs - Endurance = the tolerance of the individual or the work environment for dealing with unsatisfactory work conditions or workers - Rhythm = the pattern of attempts (e.g. steady, erratic, etc.) by individual and work environment to satisfy their needs  - Active approach = individuals attempt to change the work environment to make it more responsive to their needs  - Reactive approach = individuals change themselves to respond to the demands of the workplace
 * Three variables to understand work environment**:

**C****orrespondence** = when an individual selects an occupation that matches his or her personality type (Holland’s concept of congruence)

** Applications to the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA): **
· Decision making begins with an analysis of values and abilities (MIQ), then analysis of the ability patterns (GATB) and value patterns of several occupations · Individuals will compare each occupation to the extent at which they can perform the job satisfactorily and the occupation will satisfy their needs: It's all about the FIT. Good fit leads to --> independence, improved quality of life · Make predictions about the celerity, pace, endurance and rhythm of the worker and work environment · Consider whether a person takes an active (ability to make the work environment more responsive to the workers needs) or reactive approach · Counselors can assist individuals to compare their occupational ability patterns, needs, and values to values in the Minnesota Occupational Classification System · Counseling and teaching individuals enables greater work satisfaction · Increased exposure to this information and assessment provides greater opportunity for the individual
 * The counselor must understand the wishes and capacities of the client, as well as the rewards and demands of various occupations

**Duane Brown: Values-based theory of occupational choice**
· "Values in life role choices and outcomes: A conceptual model" (1996), "A values-based approach to facilitating career transitions" (1995) · Values are cognized representations of needs that, when developed, provide standards for behavior. · Values are major factor in motivation because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects. · Values can influence importance and clarify of goal if they are crystallized and prioritized. · Values development can be faulty with a result that the person has a distorted view of normative standards and modes of interaction within roles and the broader community. · For a job to be satisfying, individuals must engage in activities that they believe are worthwhile. · Of all the trait-and-factor theorists, Brown was the first to recognize the importance of collective social and other important non-European values.

**David Tiedeman**
· Developed the Information System for Vocational Decision (ISVD). (Use of computer technogolgy) · Current desktop programs are descendants of programs created by the ISVD · Attempted to incorporate career counseling process into program

**Anna Roe**
 * An early theorist to connect psychological needs and childhood events as a possible predictor of career choice
 * Believed that early childhood environments created different personality types and characteristics that would eventually evolve into a career selection
 * Lost momentum when researches were unable to test her propositions to be true or accurate.
 * Personality theory style to career development

**__G.W. Peterson__**
· career information processing model is based in learning theory that focuses on information processing · 4 phases o Communication - begins with a signal from inside or outside organism that a problem exists o Aspects - individuals try to determine the aspects of the problem o Synthesis - individuals generate potential solutions and then identify realistic options o Valuing - a costs-benefits analysis is conducted based on the values system of the individual o Execution - plans are developed and executed to act on the alternatives chosen · Thinking about decision making, knowing how you make decisions, knowing about self, and knowing about options are involved in career choice according to the CIP Model · assesses the readiness of individuals to make well-reasoned career choices and their cognitive and affective capabilities to make those choices · Factors used to assess readiness o High level of self-knowledge and willingness to use that knowledge in the decision making process o Willingness to explore the world of work o Motivation to learn about and engage in decision making process o Awareness of how negative thoughts influence problem solving and willingness to seek assistance when necessary · Complexity factors such as family variables, employing organizations, society at large and economic variables may influence career choice · 7 steps of career counseling o Conduct initial interview - clarifies client's needs o Conduct preliminary assessment - readiness is determined o Mutually define the problem and analyze causes o Formulate goals o Develop individual learning plan - consider resources to help client meet goals o Implement individual learning plan o Goal attainment evaluation - assess client's ability to use skills/knowledge for future decision making · Model applies primarily to those who intend to make their own decisions · Clients must report their thoughts. May not be appropriate for use with certain populations who would be uncomfortable with this.

= ** Developmental Theories (Brown Ch. 2) ** =

Major theorists:
· Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma · Super · Gottfredson

Basic Premises of Developmental Theories:
1) Focus on stages of development (e.g. childhood or adolescence) 2) Focus on biological, psychological, sociological, and cultural factors that influence career choice, adjustments to and changes/withdrawal in career

**Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma (1951)**
***First developmental theory of career development** **Vocational choice is influenced by 4 factors:** 1) the reality factor 2) the influence of the educational process 3) the emotional factor 4) individual values

3 Stages of Career Development
1) **Fantasy (Before Age 11)** - the child is free to pursue any occupational choice and the child believes that they can do anything; mostly play. Through this process, the child's preferred activities are identified and related to future career choices; near the age of 11, interests and activities are better identified and help contribute to career choice 2) **Tentative (Age 11-17)** - the adolescent begins the career choice process and recognizes the consequences and responsibility of that choice 3) **Realistic (Age 17- Young Adulthood)** - Includes 3 sub-stages: - **exploration**: the adolescent begins to restrict choice based on personal likes, skills, and abilities - **crystallization:** an occupational choice is made - **specification:** the individual pursues the educational experiences required to achieve his or her career goal


 * Rarely used in contemporary career development strategies
 * Important in understanding the foundation which newer career development theories have been formed

**Life-Span, Life Space**

 * This theory is often stated as a "segmented" theory consisting of several related propositions
 * The hope is that an integrated theory ultimately emerge

14 Propositions:
1) People differ in abilities, needs, personalities, etc. 2) People are qualified for a number of occupations by virtue of their characteristics 3) Each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits 4) Vocational preference and competencies change with time and experience; self-concepts are increasingly stable beginning in late adolescence 5) Process of change is a series of life stages characterized as a sequence of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline ("maxicycle") 6) The nature of career pattern is determined by a number of factors including parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality, and opportunity 7) Success in coping with environmental demands depends on career maturity 8) Career maturity is a hypothetical construct 9) Life stage development can be guided partly by the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and development of self-concepts 10) Career development is developing and implementing occupational self-concepts 11) Several factors influence the process of compromise between individual and social factors (values, interests, etc.) 12) Work and life satisfaction depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, etc. 13) Work satisfaction is proportional to the degree to which the person has been able to implement self-concepts 14) Work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization

**Super's Life Stages (Maxi-Cycle)**
o **Growth**- physical and psychological growth; experiences provide a background of knowledge o **Exploratory**- realizing occupation is part of life; initial fantasy phase is unrealistic. o **Establishment**- encounters with actual work; try out decisions and choices made in the exploratory stage. o **Maintenance**- seek to continue or improve the current occupational situation o **Decline**- pre-retirement; emphasis on keeping job with minimal standards of output

Vocational Development

 * **Crystallization** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 14 and 18, during which people develop overall self-concepts and occupational self-concepts that determine the general direction of their future careers
 * **Specification** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 18 and 21, during which people's broad occupational goals are more narrowly focused toward their eventual life work
 * **Implementation** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 21 and 24, during which workers take steps to learn and enter a trade
 * **Stabilization** - a stage that occurs between the age of 25 and 35, during which workers attempt to demonstrate mastery of their trades
 * **Consolidation** - a stage that occurs between the ages of 35 and retirement, during which workers seek the professional recognition and security commensurate with their ability and seniority

Life-Career Rainbow (Major Life Roles)
1) Child (son/daughter) 2) Student 3) Worker 4) Spouse 5) Parent 6) Homemaker 7) Citizen 8) Leisurite 9) Annuitant (pensioner/retiree)

Terms and Concepts from Super
1) **Role-salience** - the relative importance one places on a particular role in one's life (e.g., student, homemaker, etc.) leads to life structure 2) **Personal construct** - an extended definition of "self-concept" which includes not only an internalized personal view of self but also the individual's view of the situation or condition in which he or she exists 3) **Career maturity** - an individual's readiness to cope with the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted because of society's expectations of people who have reached that stage of development 4) **Career adaptability** - the person's ability to face, pursue, or accept changing career roles. 5) **Work Satisfaction** - experiences encountered in work are comparable with the individual's self-concept (mental picture of the self).

Theory of Circumscription and Compromise
1) Theory focuses on how people develop their career goals; based on **4 basic assumptions**: 1) The career development process begins in childhood 2) Career aspirations are attempts to implement one's self-concept 3) Career satisfaction depends on the degree to which the career is congruent with self-perceptions 4) People develop occupational stereotypes that guide them in the selection process 2) M en and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations 3) O ffers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development 4) M ain focus on career development as it relates to the types of compromises that people make 5) Proposes a hierarchical level of choice related to distance from self-concept 6) People will often comprise when choosing a career (Brown, 2012,p.51).
 * When people compromise they consider gender first, then prestige and finally field of work, using these three factors and information of accessible careers they develop a zone of acceptable occupations(Brown,2012,p.51).

1) Masculinity/femininity of the occupation 2) Prestige of the occupation (includes intellectual complexity or ability dimension) 3) Fields of work
 * Development of cognitive maps of occupations that are organized along three dimensions (Brown, 2012, pp. 49-50):**

**Circumscription: Stages of Development:**

 * Stage 1 (Ages 3-5):** Orientation to size and power --> Children lay groundwork for later sex role stereotypes
 * Stage 2 (Ages 6-8):** Orientation to sex roles --> Children begin to develop perceptions of what is acceptable for men and women
 * Stage 3 (Ages 9-13):** Orientation to social valuation (awareness of social class, development of preferences for level of work, differences in preferences by ability level and social class --> Children realize that different jobs hold different social statuses. Many occupations are eliminated, which is called circumscription.
 * Stage 4 (Ages 14+):** Choices explored; orientation to the internal, unique self (perception of self and others) --> Compromises are made based on ability or accessibility of jobs.

**Gottfredson's Terms**
1) **circumscription -** process by which children narrow their occupational alternatives by eliminating those that are not acceptable in prestige or sex type 2) **compromise** - process by which preferred alternatives are sacrificed because they are inaccessible 3) **cognitive growth** - development of increasingly complex cognitive ability during childhood, which influences the cognitive occupational map and self-concept 4) **self-creation** - how the experiences that one chooses build upon biologically based characteristics of an individual 5) **zone of acceptable alternatives** - the occupations remaining after an individual eliminates occupations due to sex type, intolerably low prestige, or intolerably high effort 6) **tolerable-effort boundary** - the lowest level of prestige considered acceptable among occupational alternatives 7) **tolerable-level boundary** - the highest level of effort considered acceptable among occupational alternatives 8) **sex type** - a limiting boundary within one's zone of acceptable alternatives; it emerges as an influence in Stage 2, where children become aware of the sex-appropriateness of different occupations 9) **prestige** - a limiting floor and ceiling boundary within one's zone of acceptable alternatives; it emerges as a factor in Stage 3, where children become aware of the differential prestige of occupations within society


 * __Application:__**
 * Be sensitive to the mental capabilities of the age group
 * Introduce students to the full breadth of options
 * Display for youngsters their circumscription of alternatives
 * Be sensitive to the dimensions of self and occupations along which circumscriptions and compromises take place so that their role can be explored

= ** Social Learning Theories ** = ** SCCT - Social Cognitive Career Theory **
 * focus on the learning processes that lead to self-efficacy beliefs and interests and how these impact the career decision-making process
 * Self-regulated beliefs about abilities- Self Efficacy
 * Social Learning Theory**
 * account for the learning processes that lead to the acquisition of the beliefs and behaviors critical to the career development process
 * Learning through reinforcements/beliefs

** Main Ideas **
1) A learning theory derived from Albert Bandura. It combines reinforcement theory, behaviorism and cognitive information processing 2) Assumes that people's personalities and behavioral repertoires can be explained most usefully on the basis of their __unique learning experiences__ while still acknowledging the role played by __innate and developmental processes__ 3) Focuses on **instrumental** (active) and **associative** (reactive) learning experiences 4) Conceptualized as one theory with **2 parts:**
 * Part 1:** Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
 * Part 2:** Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
- designed to address the __WHY__ behind decisions to enter, change, or express interest in educational programs or occupations - **Four Factors that influence the career decision making path** 1) Genetic endowment and special abilities: race, sex, disabilities, talents 2) Environmental conditions and events: # and nature of job opportunities, # and nature of training opportunities, social policies, labor/union laws, changing economy 3) Learning Experiences: instrumental and active experiences 4) Task Approach Skills (work habits, mental sets, perceptual and though processes, performance standards and values - as a result of the interaction of the 4 skills people develop: 1) **self-observation generalizations** and 2) **world-view generalizations** - as a result of learning experiences and the generalizations and skills that develop from them, individuals engage in various behaviors that lead to entry into a career

Learning Theory of Career Counseling
- designed to help career counselors know __what to do__ to help - **Four Fundamental Trends** 1) People need to __expand their capabilities and interests__, not base decisions on existing characteristics only 2) People need to __prepare for changing work tasks__, not assume that occupations will remain stable 3) People need to __be empowered to take action__, not merely to be given a diagnosis 4) Career counselors need to play a major role in __dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection__

Key Terms:
1) **Instrumental learning experiences** - individual actions on environment 2) **Associative learning experiences** - reaction to external stimuli, real or fictitious models, pairing two events in time and location

__**Applications:**__

 * Counselor behavior strategies: Reinforcement, role model, role-playing, simulation
 * Counselor cognitive strategies: Goal clarification, counter a troublesome belief, look for inconsistencies between words and actions, cognitive rehearsal


 * __Planned happenstance:__**

[]

6 Central Propositions
1) The interaction between people and their environments is highly dynamic; the result is that individuals are at once influenced by and have an influence on their environments 2) Career-related behavior is influenced by **4 aspects of the person**: 1) behavior, 2) self-efficacy beliefs, 3) outcome expectations, and 4) goals 3) Self-efficacy beliefs and expectations of outcomes interact directly to influence interest development. People become interested in things they believe the can perform well to produce valued outcomes. 4) Gender, race, physical health, disabilities, and environmental variables influence self-efficacy development, as well as expectations of outcomes and, ultimately, goals and performance. 5) Actual career choice and implementation are influenced by a number of direct and indirect variables other than self-efficacy, expectations of outcomes, and goals. These variables include discrimination, economic variables that influence supply and demand, and the culture of the decision maker. Indirect influences = chance happenings. 6) Performance in educational activities and occupations is the result of the interactions among ability, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and the goals that have been established.

Key SCCT Terms
1) **self-efficacy** - confidence in ability to accomplish tasks in a particular domain 2) **outcome expectations** - outcomes expected of domain-specific actions 3) **interests** - preference for activities 4) **distal barriers and supports-** factors that hinder or facilitate the development of learning experiences and self-efficacy 5) **proximal barriers and supports** - factors that hinder or facilitate implementation of career choices that are close in time to the choice 6) **contextual affordances** - environmental resources and obstacles that shape career development

**Postmodern Theories (Brown ch. 3)**
- objective - linear realities - causal relationships - reductionist thinking - dichotomous elements <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- outside reality orientation (world of work knowledge)
 * __Postmodern vs. Modern Approaches__**
 * Modern**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- humanistic, holistic, <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">nonlinear realities are viable world views <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- holistic thinking <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- contexual elements <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- subjective <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- internal reality <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- multiple truths <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- individual experiences matter (ideographic approach)
 * Postmodern**

Contextualist Theory of Career - Young, Valach, Collin (2002)
o grounded in constructivism vs. positivism o Young et al: only way to understand individuals is in the context of their environments //as they experience them and make sense or meaning of the experiences// o actions of individuals //not// caused by past or present events o career-related behaviors are //goal-directed results// of the individual's constructivist view o unobservable bx: internal processes and the individual's experiencial interpretation o joint actions: occur between people; joint goals; players engage in social actions of social and personal meaning; o projects: longer-term joint or individual actions (preparing for a career)


 * 5-Step Approach:**
 * 1) Evoking stories
 * 2) Identifying themes
 * 3) Interpreting the problem
 * 4) Editing or changing the theme(s)
 * 5) Extending to future

Complexity, Chaos, and Nonlinear Dynamics: A Chaos Theory of Career Development and Spirituality - Bloch (2005)
Career adaptive entities
 * THEME:** Everything in the world is connected and nonpredictable
 * logical positivist
 * links careers and spirituality
 * fractals
 * people are continuously regenerating their career and moving freely among career pathways
 * careers make sense only if examined using nonlinear logic
 * shifting in careers can only be understood from the individual's perspective and are nonpredictable
 * people's careers/lives range from orderly to chaotic

**Characteristics of Complex Adaptive Entities**
1.) Entities have the ability to maintain themselves, although their components and shapes may change (Autopiesis). 2.) Entities are open and maintain themselves through the ongoing flow and interchange of components or energy (Open-exchange). 3.) Entities are part of networks. 4.) Entities are parts of fractals of other entities. 5.) Entities are dynamic, with phase transitions which are the opportunity for creativity and the emergence of new forms. 6.) Entities seek fitness peaks during phase transitions. 7.) Entities behave in nonlinear ways. 8.) Small change brings about large effects (Sensitive dependence). 9.) Entities may retain life and shape in response to several types of attractors that limit movement and growth. a. Point attractors b. Pendulum attractors c. Torus attractors 10.) Entities may retain life through the creation of new forms, a quality known as emergence (Role of strange attractors). 11.) Entities exist as part of nested inseparability or connectedness (Spirituality).


 * Pryor and Bright (2005) provided a guide to the use of the chaos theory(Brown, 2012, p. 69).

**Postmodern theories**
· Phenomenological or constructivist

· Key assumptions:

o human behavior is nonlinear and cannot be studied objectively

o cannot determine cause and effect relationships

o human behavior cannot be studied outside of context

o cannot generalize research data

o research is not value free - the researcher's values should be considered in the process

o stories and narratives are sources of data

o research as goal free

o career counselors should focus on clients' stories and use qualitative assessment procedures o research should be value free; otherwise results will likely be flawed o cause and effect relationships can be measured o results can be generalized to other people, given certain conditions have been met, such as random sampling and reliable valid instruments o career counselors should maintain their objectivity and base practice on empirical research

**Positivist theories**
· Trait-and factor theories, developmental theories, learning theories · Key assumptions: o human behavior can be objectively measured and can be studied outside the context in which it occurs

**Constructivist** · Constructivist theories, also known as postmodern theories**,** differ from theories based on positivist philosophy · Human behavior cannot be studied objectively because it is nonlinear · Relationships that are cause and effect cannot be determined · People must be studied within the context that they function · Research data cannot be generalized · The researcher must not use their own values to guide the research (value-free process) · A legitimate source of data comes from the stories of the student · Purposeful sampling is used to find people that respond to the research in a purposeful way and find actual effects based on demonstrated needs (goal free) · Career counselors help clients come up with career goals by focusing on their stories and using qualitative assessment procedures

** Socioeconomic Theories (Brown chap. 3) **
· Focus on small and large group behavior · Purpose is to help increase understanding of sociological and economic factors on career choice and development

**Solution-Focused Theory**
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Steve de Shazer (1985)

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">The sequence of Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling (SFBCC) is as follows:

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(1). the client identifies the problem to be addressed; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(2). the client identifies the changes (goals) to be made and scales the goals; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(3). the client is encouraged to search for exceptions, that is, times when they were able to solve similar problems; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(4). the client identifies personal strengths and strategies used in past successes that can be used to resolve the identified problem; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(5). the counselor and the client revisit the goal, scale it, and develop a plan to resolve or reduce the impact of the problem that was presented; and <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">(6). the counselor may engage in second-order questioning if the client is "stuck".

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Exceptions:looking for strengths <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Reframing:make it functional <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">Scales:track progress of goal

**Mark Savickas**
· Believes that career development must have a future time orientation. People are more satisfied in their careers when the look ahead and anticipate what the future may hold. · Developed a career exploration course in an attempt to develop the following attitudes and concepts: o Become Involved Now o Explore your future o Choose based on how things look to you o Control your future o Work: Problem or Opportunity? o View work positively o Conceptualize Career choice o Clear up Career Misconceptions o Base choice on yourself o Use 4 aspects of self as choice bases · __Time Perspective__ - how individuals “view and orient themselves to time...time imagery related to achievement motivation” (Savickas, 1990, p. 5) o Future-oriented is the goal, rather than past-reflective. However, future-oriented usually comes with more anxiety of the what-ifs, etc. o Where you are pointing your flashlight · __Time Differentiation__ - the density and extension of events within time zones tends to define which time zone is more real for the client o Interventions: “helping people create, articulate, and enact their dreams” (Savickas, p. 10) § How far the light beams point into the future. Counselor may need to orient the beams into the future. · __Time Integration__ - the sense of connectedness among events across time zones o Interventions: attention to planning attitudes, competencies, contingency planning, purposeful actions
 * Savickas Model of Time Terms**

**Creating Narratives**
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Howard (1989) noted that people tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and deemphasize other parts.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- It is aimed towards problem solving - finding exceptions to these events.
 * Ways in which Narratives help clients**
 * -** A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Compose a life history <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Build a future narrative <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Construct reality <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Change a life structure <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Enact a role <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px;">- Crystallize a decision
 * Ways to use a Narrative Approach in Career Counseling**
 * -** Elaborate a career problem

References Brown, D. (2012). Career information, career counseling, and career development (10th ed.). New York: Pearson.

=What theories say about the lifespan:=

Children

 * Super- //Growth Stage. Role of the child is physical and psychological growth.//
 * Gottfredson //stages of Orientation to size and power, orientation to sex roles, and orientation to social validation//
 * Ginzberg et al.//- Fantasy Stage//

Adolescents

 * Super- //Exploratory- realize occupation is a way of life until decline in pre-retirement.//
 * Gottfredson- //Orientation to internal unique self//
 * Ginzerg et al.- //Tentative stage//

Adults

 * Super- //establish and maintenance stage//
 * Holland- //personality is primary factor in vocational choice//
 * MTWA- //worker and work environment factors//
 * Ginzberg et al. - //Realistic stage with subgroups of exploration, crystallization, and specification//
 * Gottfredson- //Circumscription and compromise//