Difference+Between+Types+of+Theories+and+Examples+of+Each


 * I found this to be very helpful!!*** [[file:CD Theories.doc]]**


 * Logical Positivist Theories- Human nature is/can be objective. Participants can be taken out surrounding context. Value free research. Cause and effect can be determined. Research can be generalized. Counselors can/must be objective.**


 * Trait and Factor Theories: people need to develop their traits (values, interests, personalities, aptitudes) and select congruent environments**
 * **Consumer traits vs. occupation traits**
 * **Based on TRUE reasoning**
 * Examples:**
 * __Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice:__ personality type is primary factor in vocational choice, RIASEC or CRASIE
 * There are no pure types, although we resemble one type more than the other
 * Self directed search for Holland's code; assessments include occupational daydreams, preferred activities, self-assesed competencies, etc
 * 3 letter code provides direct link to occupations finder (primary, secondary, tertiary)
 * __Theory of Work Adjustment:__ workers select jobs that satisfy their needs and workers are selected because their skills meet the needs of the workplace
 * Explains why workers stay in a particular job
 * Satisfaction of worker's expectations & needs+Satisfactoriness of the worker to the demands of the environment=tenure
 * Workers are satisfied with their jobs when their work is reinforced
 * Both individual and work environment have mechanisms for meeting needs; the more similar a person's abilities are to the requirements of their job, the more likely they will perform well and be seen as satisfactory by their employer.
 * __Values Based Theory of Occupational Choice:__ work values are ones individuals believe should be satisfied as a result of participation in the work role (value categories: human nature, person-nature relationship, time orientation, activity, self-control, social relationships, collateral, allocentrism)


 * Developmental Theories: assumption that factors that influence career development are related to stages of personal/psychological development**
 * __Super's Life Span/Life Space Theory:__ Emphasis on the role of self-concept; Super recognized that the self-concept changes and develops throughout people's lives as a result of experience. Identified series of life changes, Growth, Exploration (fantasy,tentative,realistic), Establishment (trial,stable), Maintenance, Decline. Life Career Rainbow emphasizes different roles played by the individual during his/her lifetime.




 * __Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise:__ narrow our choices based on estimates of compatibility and accessibility, developmental stages: Orientation to size and power, Orientation to sex roles, Orientation to social valuation, Choices explored, Zone of Acceptable Alternatives




 * Learning Theories: describes the learning processes by which an individual gains self-efficacy and what that effect has on the career decision-making process**


 * __Krumboltz's Social Learning Theory:__ based on Bandura, 4 Factors that influence career decision-making; 1. Genetic endowment and special abilities 2. Environmental conditions and events 3. Learning experiences (instrumental and associative) 4. Task approach skills; constantly encountering learning experiences with rewards or punishments that produces uniqueness of a person
 * __Social Cognitive Career Theory:__ career-related behavior influenced by 4 aspects of person - behavior, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals; gender, race and environment influence self-efficacy development which contributes to outcome expectations and goals
 * __Career Information Processing Model of Career Choice:__ knowledge of self + occupational knowledge leads to application of decision making style = deciding; monitoring where you are in the decision making process, self-talk must be positive


 * Socioeconomic Theories: focus on SES of decision-maker and influence of social and economic factors on decision making**
 * __Status Attainment Theory:__ SES leads to education which leads to occupation entered, family status and cognitive variables combine through socio-psychological processes to influence educational attainment then occupational attainment
 * __Dual Labor Market Theory:__ 2 types of businesses in labor market, Core (well-developed career paths) and Peripheral (no long-term commitment, little upward mobility)
 * __Race, Gender, and Career:__ Blacks earn less than whites, women earn less than men, women and men largely segregated in workplace


 * Postmodern Theories: focus on understanding individuals in the context of their environments**
 * __Contextualist Theory of Career:__ career related behaviors are goal-directed results of individual's construction of their context; action has 3 parts - 1. unobservable behavior 2. internal processes that can't be observed 3. the meaning or results as interpreted by the individuals and others who observe the action; joint actions have PERSONAL and SOCIAL MEANING. Career-related behaviors are goal-directed results of the individual's construction of the context is which he or she functions. To understand an event, one must start with the event, determine the individual's view of it, and then proceed from that point.
 * __Chaos Theory of Career Development and Spirituality:__ clients are adaptive entities, clients are parts of other entities (career, families, leisure groups); THESE PARTS ARE CALLED FRACTALS; go through transitions and seek fitness peaks that maximize survival, small change can bring on large effects; attractors (point, pendulum, torus, strange)
 * Two **approaches** to Postmodern Theories
 * __Solution Focused Brief Career Counseling:__ client identifies issue, goals, and scales them; encouraged to search for exceptions and strengths; second order questioning if client is stuck - focuses client on what would happen if issue not addressed, leads to client understanding that evidence may disconfirm beliefs
 * __Constructivist Counseling:__ counseling using a perspective that acknowledges that career development is influenced by many factors and is continually undergoing changes. It is based on the client's subjective narrative or life story in order for them to construct their own career plan.


 * Theories of Decision-Making**
 * ** Jepsen and Dilley ** (1974), specify that the decision-making process is one that requires a person to make a choice between two or more possible situations that each carry unique consequences. They use this criteria to provide a comprehensive summary of several models surrounding decision-making which they divide into the following two categories:
 * __Prescriptive Models__: describe how decisions ought to be made
 * Mitchell: decision maker matches confronting situation to view of ideal one then chooses alternative closest to ideal
 * //Absolute constraints// are those aspects of each decision that make them worth consideration
 * //Negative characteristics// are the adverse factors
 * //Positive characteristics// are the attractive factors
 * //Neutral characteristics// are the factors that exist but are not influential (Brown, 2012 pg. 74)
 * Tversky: elimination by aspects, focuses on all choices simultaneously and those who fail minimum standard of aspect are eliminated

The models of Vroom and Janice & Mann work together in decision making.
 * __Descriptive Models__: describe how decisions are actually made
 * **Vroom: expectancy model**: pressure to make choice is related to the sum of valences (preferences) of all outcomes and strength of expectancies that the decision will lead to the preferred conclusion
 * **Janice & Mann: conflict model**: conflict faced when making decision causes stress and uncertainty. When a person becomes aware of threat they ask questions, if last question about time for viable alternatives is answered, they are in best position to make decision because of the attention to pros and cons. An example of these questions is below:
 * 1) What are the consequences of not changing?
 * 2) How serious are these consequences?
 * 3) Is there possibility for resolution?
 * 4) Do I have enough time to find this solution?
 * S****ocial Cognitive Theories**
 * Grew out of Bandura's work.
 * Focuses on the connection of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals that influence an individual's career choice
 * Career choice is influenced by an individual's beliefs through 4 major sources:
 * Personal performance accomplishments
 * Vicarious learning
 * Social persuasion
 * Physiological states and reactions
 * These aspects work together as the individual develops an expertise/ability for a particular endeavor and meets with success
 * This process reinforces one's self-efficacy or belief in future continued success in the use of this ability/expertise
 * __Result:__ Individual develops goals that involve continuing involvement in that activity/endeavor


 * Reference**

Brown, D. (2012). Career Information, Career Counseling, And Career Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.