Theories+Overview

__**Positivist Philosophical Theories**__


 * These theories assume that human behavior can be measured, observed, and researched in a laboratory setting, as long as there are adequate testing instruments.
 * humans act and react in a laboratory setting in the exact same way as they do in vivo.
 * results can be generalized
 * Research process should be value free and can be in the most ideal and controlled circumstances.
 * The researcher SHOULD NOT include their own beliefs and values in the research process.
 * Cause and effect relationships are possible
 * Research should maintain objectivity (achieved through the deletion of researcher bias and beliefs).
 * Categories of theories that fall under the Positivist Philosophical theoretical tree:

__(1) Trait & Factor Theories__
 * Individuals need to develop their traits, which may include
 * Interests
 * Values
 * Personalities
 * Aptitudes
 * Environment that is congruent with the self
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Holland’s Theory of Vocational Choice (The individual fits the job)
 * Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) - Dawis, England & Lofqist (the more similar a person's abilities are to the requirement of the work environment, the more likely that person is to perform well and be seen as satisfactory by their employer)
 * Brown’s Values-Based Theory of Occupational Choice (The individual and the job strive to match each other)

__(2) Developmental Theories__
 * Assumes that the choices that guide career development are rooted in personal and psychological development throughout the lifespan and begin in childhood.
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Super’s Life Span, Life Space Theory
 * Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise

__(3) Learning Theories__
 * The process by which individuals develop, and
 * The process by which individuals make decisions
 * individuals learn instrumentally (direct instruction), or
 * through association - tasks are paired in such a way to increase interest in learning more
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM)
 * Peterson et al. Career Information-Processing Model of Career Choice (CIP)

__**Postmodern (Constructivist) Philosophical Theories**__

> __(1) Postmodern Theories__
 * Relatively new to career development
 * These theories assume that human behavior can __NOT__ be measured in an artificial laboratory setting.
 * accurate studies can only be done in the natural environment and through observation. Any researcher manipulation negates the authenticity of the study.
 * Results cannot be generalized to the larger population because of the unique nonlinear quality of existence.
 * Mostly relies on case studies.
 * Cause and effect relationships can __NOT__ be determined (cause and effect infers a linear relationship when there are actually an infinite number of influencing factors)
 * It is impossible for researchers to remain completely objective
 * Thus the researchers __SHOULD__ put their own objectivity views into the research (more meaningful)
 * Narratives of the clients are a legitimate source of information (used to identify themes, patterns, and links to past experiences).
 * Research is goal free
 * Counselors should focus on the narratives of the clients and then help clients find a career that fits the context of the narrative and the uniqueness of the client
 * Categories of theories that fall under the Postmodern (Constructivist) Philosophical theoretical tree ....
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Young, Valach & Collins's Contextualist Theory of Career
 * Bloch's Complexity, Chaos, and Nonlinear Dynamics: A Chaos Theory of Career Development and Spirituality
 * Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling - de Shazer

__(2) Socioeconomic Theories__
 * More sociological and/or economical based than psychological
 * Increased focus on external factors that affect development
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Status Attainment Theory - Hotchkiss and Borrow
 * Dual Labor Market Theory - Hotchkiss & Borrow
 * Race, Gender, and Career - Saunders, Johnston & Mortimer, Reskin

__(3) Theories of Decision Making__
 * Gives included attention to the process behind making a decision
 * Theories that fall into this category include
 * Krumboltz (1979) - Social Learning Theory
 * Jepsen and Dilley (1974) and Wright (1984) - Prescriptive and Descriptive Models
 * Mitchell (1975) - Elements of preferences held by the decision maker (Absolute constraints, Negative constraints, positive constraints, and neutral constraints)
 * Tversky (1972) - Elimination by aspects
 * Vroom (1964) - Descriptive model (Valence, expectancies)
 * Janis and Mann (1977) - Descriptive model (Conflict is caused whenever a person is faced with making a decision)

(4) Social-Cognitive Theories
 * Emphasis placed on self-efficacy
 * SCCT theory posits that the interaction between people and environment is highly dynamic and ever changing. People influence, and are influenced by, the environment.
 * Career related behavior is influenced by: A person's behavior in general, beliefs about self-efficacy, beliefs pertaining to outcomes and goals, and genetically determined characteristics.
 * Peoples' interests lie in their belief that they can do these things well.
 * Other factors influence career choice: discrimination, economic variables, and the culture of the person doing the hiring as well as chance happenings.
 * People who have high self-efficacy and high ability, perform higher in educational and career endeavors than those who do not.
 * Lent, Brown, & Hackett's Social Cognitive Perspective (SCCT)

Reference Brown, D. (2012). Career Information, Career Counseling, And Career Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.