Brown+Chapter+3+and+Class+Notes

__** Brown Chap. 3 **__

Things to Remember: **__Modern vs. Postmodern__**
 * The major propositions of the theories rooted in learning theory
 * The major propositions of the two postmodern approaches and why postmodern theories differ from those that are based in logical positivism
 * The major propositions of socioeconomic theories of status attainment
 * Two career counseling aids that were derived from decision-making theories
 * Modern/logical Positivist**


 * objective
 * linear realities
 * reductionist thinking
 * dichotomous elements
 * outside reality orientation
 * causal realities


 * Postmodern**


 * humanistic
 * nonlinear realities are viable worldviews
 * internal reality
 * holistic thinking
 * contextual elements
 * subjective


 * Positivist __theories__**


 * Trait-and factor theories, developmental theories, learning theories
 * Key assumptions:
 * human behavior can be objectively measured and can be studied outside the context in which it occurs
 * research should be value free; otherwise results will likely be flawed
 * cause and effect relationships can be measured
 * results can be generalized to other people, given certain conditions have been met, such as random sampling and reliable valid instruments
 * career counselors should maintain their objectivity and base practice on empirical research


 * Postmodern __theories__**


 * Phenomenological or constructivist
 * Key assumptions:
 * human behavior is nonlinear and cannot be studied objectively
 * cannot determine cause and effect relationships
 * human behavior cannot be studied outside of context
 * cannot generalize research data
 * research is not value free - the researcher's values should be considered in the process
 * stories and narratives are sources of data
 * research as goal free
 * career counselors should focus on clients' stories and use qualitative assessment procedures

__**Social Learning Theories**__
 * focus on the learning processes that lead to self-efficacy beliefs and interests and how these impact the career decision-making process
 * account for the learning processes that lead to the acquisition of the beliefs and behaviors critical to the career development process

**John Krumboltz**

** Main Ideas **
1) A learning theory derived from Albert Bandura. It combines reinforcement theory, behaviorism and cognitive information processing 2) Assumes that people's personalities and behavioral repertoires can be explained most usefully on the basis of their __unique learning experiences__ while still acknowledging the role played by __innate and developmental processes__ //**(defined below)**// 3) Focuses on **instrumental** and **associative** learning experiences 4) Conceptualized as one theory with **2 parts:**
 * Part 1:** Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
 * Part 2:** Learning Theory of Career Counseling

Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making
- designed to address the __WHY__ behind decisions to enter, change, or express interest in educational programs or occupations - **Four Factors that influence the career decision making path** 1) Genetic endowment and special abilities- He recognizes that certain inherited characteristics can be restrictive influences on the individual (p.60) i.e. IQ, physical/artistic abilities 2) Environmental conditions and events- This factor includes those influences that may lie outside the control of individuals but that bear on them through the environment in which they exist (p. 60). These human or natural elements may cause events to occur that also bear on the individual in the educational and career decision process (p.60). i.e. existence job training opportunities, social policies, earthquakes, neighborhood/community influences 3) Learning Experiences - All previous learning experiences influence the individual's educational and career decision making. He identifies only two types of learning as examples: instrumental learning experiences and associative learning experiences. a__.Instrumental learning experiences__ would include those situations in which the individual acts on the environment to produce certain consequences. b.__Associative learning experiences__ are situations in which the individual learns by reacting to external stimuli, by observing real or fictitious models, or by pairing two events in time or location (p. 60). 4) Task Approach Skills- skills individuals apply to each new task ie. work habits, mental sets, perceptual and thought processes, performance standards and values, cognitive processes

Quick Summary:
 * An Individual is born into the world with certain genetic characteristics.
 * As time passes, individual encounters environmental, economic, social, and cultural events conditions.
 * Key Point:
 * // The individual learns from these encounters, building self-observations and task approach skills that are applied to the new encounters. //
 * // The successes and failures that accrue in these encounters influence the individual in choosing course in action in subsequent learning experiences. //

- as a result of the interaction of the 4 skills people develop three consequences: 1) **self-observation generalizations** (over or covert ideas about how a person may or may not work in a particular career situation in relation to learned standards; may or may not be accurate), 2) **further task approach skills** (efforts by the person to project into future self-observation generalizations to make predictions about future events) 3) **actions** (i.e., actions which implement career related behavior, such applying for a job) - as a result of learning experiences and the generalizations and skills that develop from them, individuals engage in various behaviors that lead to entry into a career - Task approach skills are thought to be efforts by the person to look into he future self-observation generalizations make predictions about future events (Brown, 2012, p.61) - Krumboltz sees person as constantly encountering learning experiences, each of which is followed by rewards or punishments that in turn produce uniqueness of each person - Individual born with genetic characteristics (race, gender, physique), then encounters environmental, economical, social and cultural conditions, learns from encounters and builds self-observations and task approach skills applied to new encounters. Successes and failures that accrue influence individuals in choosing actions similar to those that accrued success and avoiding those that led to failure (Brown, 2012, p. 61). -Counselors should address the following problems: 1.Failure to recognize that a remediable problem exists 2. Failure to exert effort needed to make decisions or solve problems 3. Eliminated potentially satisfying alternative for inappropriate reasons 4. Choosing poor alternatives for inappropriate reasons 5. Suffering anguish and anxiety over perceived inability to achieve goals

**Status and Use of Theory**
-Rejected the traditional approach of career counseling that career selected based on traits (Brown, 2012,p.61). -Rather, career counselors should facilitate acquisition of self-knowledge and the skills needed to negotiate an ever-changing world of uncertainty -Developed the **Career Beliefs Inventory** in order to help people understand how their beliefs and related to their interests (Brown, 2012, p.61) 1) People need to __expand their capabilities and interests__, not base decisions on existing characteristics only 2) People need to __prepare for a changing work environment__, not assume that occupations will remain stable 3) People need to __be empowered to take action__, not merely to be given a diagnosis 4) Career counselors need to focus more broadly, they need to look at __dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection__
 * Career counseling should focus on these 4 thoughts**

Krumboltz's approach is especially good when working with marginalized and disenfranchised groups because he would not be satisfied with letting members of these groups accept things in society just as they are. He would use positive reinforcement for effort and achievement, which showed that he recognizes that some people live in negative environments and use behavior rehearsal and cognitive practice to direct them into more positive roles (Brown, 2012, p. 62) (Brown, 2012, p. 62) Direct quotes: He would utilize positive role models they could emulate He would counter beliefs that limit growth and learning and assist clients to establish both proximal and terminal goals.
 * The client might be a family or group, rather than an individual, and some of the techniques would be tempered so that the decision maker in the family is shown the respect she or he deserves.

TWO major types of learning experiences:
1) **Instrumental learning experiences** - individual actions on environment producing consequences 2) **Associative learning experiences** - reaction to external stimuli, by observing real or fictitious models, pairing two events in time and location
 * Consequences produced through learning experiences:**
 * 1) self observation generalizations: overt or covert self-statement that evaluates one's own actual or vicarious performance in relation to learned standards
 * 2) task approach skills: efforts by the person to project into the future self-observation generalizations to make predictions about future events
 * 3) actions: implementations of behavior

(our perception rather than actual ability sometimes, our perception of our ability, can be the pathway that leads to interests)
 * Self-Efficacy Theory:**
 * Efficacy Expectations
 * Outcome Expectations


 * Summary:** Krumboltz saw his theory as 1) a way of explaining the origin of career choice and 2) a guide to how career counselors might tackle career related problems. Counselors start with understanding how a client came to their career related view of themselves and the world and what is limiting or problematic about this view. Once this has been established, the counselor and client identify what career relevant learning experiences, modeling, or skill building will help them re-frame their view. The counselor plays a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection.

**Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) - Lent, Brown, and Hackett** - This theory somewhat parallels Krumboltz's theory and also is based on Albert Bandura's sociocognitive theory - Its main difference from other learning based theories is its emphasis on self-regulatory cognition's especially ones regarding self-efficacy

6 Central Propositions
1) The interaction between people and their environments is highly dynamic; the result is that individuals are at once influenced by and have an influence on their environments 2) Career-related behavior is influenced by **4 aspects of the person**: 1) behavior, 2) self-efficacy beliefs, 3) outcome expectations, and 4) goals 3) Self-efficacy beliefs and expectations of outcomes interact directly to influence interest development. People become interested in things they believe they can perform well to produce valued outcomes. 4) Gender, race, physical health, disabilities, and environmental variables influence self-efficacy development, as well as expectations of outcomes and, ultimately, goals and performance. 5) Actual career choice and implementation are influenced by a number of direct and indirect variables other than self-efficacy, expectations of outcomes, and goals. These variables include discrimination, economic variables that influence supply and demand, and the culture of the decision maker. Indirect influences = chance happenings. 6) Performance in educational activities and occupations is the result of the interactions among ability, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and the goals that have been established. Pathway of developing interest and building self efficacy.

Key SCCT Terms
1) **self-efficacy** - confidence in ability to accomplish tasks in a particular domain 2) **outcome expectations** - outcomes expected of domain-specific actions 3) **interests** - preference for activities 4) **distal barriers and supports-** factors that hinder or facilitate the development of learning experiences and self-efficacy 5) **proximal barriers and supports** - factors that hinder or facilitate implementation of career choices that are close in time to the choice 6) **contextual affordances** - environmental resources and obstacles that shape career development

Note about SCCT: useful in working with groups like women effected by sex-typing, ethnic and racial minorities, lesbian women and gay men, and adults with mental illnesses. These people are not always able to have opportunities to engage in occupationally relevant activities.

Lent and colleagues (2002) recommend two career counseling applications of the SCCT. The first involves gathering traditional test data in regards to needs, values and aptitudes. This data can then be used to identify skills that have been developed and the situations where these developed skills might be applied and a result of this would be satisfaction. The second application is the use of a modified vocational card sort of occupations representing the occupational structure. There would be two stacks of cards with one reading //"In question"// and //"would choose."// These two stacks are then divided into categories that reflect //self-efficacy// and //outcome expectations// (Brown, p. 64).


 * Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (pages 62-64) **

> > ** Self-efficacy Beliefs ** - refers to an individual’s personal beliefs about his or her capabilities to perform particular behaviors or courses of action. > For Example: > In this theory, the SCCT assumes when the client have the essential skills and support, they will then have higher performance and be more interested in pursuing other career choices. > ** Outcome expectations ** - refers to the beliefs about the consequences or outcomes of performing particular behaviors. > For example: > People are more likely to choose to engage in an activity to the extent that they see their involvement as leading to valued, positive outcomes. > ** Personal goals ** : is defined as one’s intention to engage in a particular activity or to attain a certain level of performance. (In SCCT, these two goals are referred as choice goals and performance goals.) > ** Recommend two career counseling applications **
 * Based on the sociocognitive theory of Albert Bandura
 * First published in 1994
 * Influential theory of cognitive and motivational processes
 * The study of many areas of psychosocial functioning
 * Other areas including: academic performance, health behavior, and organizational development
 * Tremendous impact on research regarding career choice.
 * Increasing evidence that SCCT influences career counseling practice (Sharf, 2002).
 * Parallel’s Krumboltz’s Theory (to some degree)
 * Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1995, 1996, 2002) believed that Krumboltz relied too heavily on learning histories and not enough on cognitive processes to explain career-related behavior.
 * For example, neither operant nor classical conditioning is mentioned in their theory
 * Difference
 * Lent, Brown, and Hackett (1995, 1996, 2002) emphasized on self-regulatory cognitions, particularly those associated with self-efficacy expectations, which is in keeping with Bandura’s theory.
 * ** Three Intricately Linked Variables Serve as Building Blocks of SCCT Theory (Brown, 2012, p. 62) **
 * Self-efficacy beliefs
 * One assumptions: Self-efficacy and interests are linked and that interests can be developed or strengthened using modeling, encouragement, and most powerfully, by performance enactment
 * Derive from four primary sources of information
 * Personal performance accomplishments- successes and failures with specific tasks
 * Vicarious experiences
 * Social persuasion
 * Physiological and emotional states
 * Outcome expectations
 * Refer to beliefs about the consequences or outcomes of performing particular behaviors
 * Plays key role in SCCT’s model
 * Goals
 * Defined as one’s intentions to engage in a particular activity (e.g., to pursue a given academic major) or to attain a certain level of performance (e.g., to receive an A in particular course)
 * By setting goals, people help to organize and guide their own behavior and to sustain it in the absence of more immediate positive feedback and despite inevitable setbacks.
 * SCCT posits that goals are importantly tied to both self-efficacy and outcome expectations.
 * Two types of goals
 * Choice goals
 * Performance goals
 * Plays key role in SCCT’s model
 * ** The Central Proposition of SCCT (Brown, 2012, p. 63) **
 * ** The Central Proposition of SCCT (Brown, 2012, p. 63) **
 * 1) The interaction between people and their environments is highly dynamic; the result is that individuals are at once influenced by and have an influence on their environments.
 * 2) Career-related behavior is influenced by four aspects of the person: behavior, self-efficacy beliefs, outcomes expectations, and goals, in addition to genetically determined characteristics.
 * 3) ** Self-efficacy beliefs and expectations of outcomes interact directly to influence interest development. People become interested in things they believe they can perform well to produce value outcomes. **
 * 4) ** Gender, race, physical health, disabilities, and environmental variables influence self-efficacy development, as well as expectations of outcomes and, outcomes, ultimately, goals and performances. **
 * 5) Actual career choice and implementation are influenced by a number of direct and indirect variables other than self-efficacy, expectations of outcomes, and goals. **Direct influences on career choice and development include discrimination, economic variables that influence supply and demand, and the culture of the decision maker. Indirect influences include change** happenings.
 * 6) Performance in educational activities and occupations is the result of the interactions among ability, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and the goals that have been established. All things being equal, **people with the highest levels of ability and the strongest self-efficacy beliefs perform at the highest level. However, self-efficacy beliefs and outcomes expectations are altered continuously as individual interact with their environment.4**
 * ** SCCT THEORY Definitions: ( Brown, 2012, p. 62-64) **
 * ** SCCT Theorists’ Recommendation (Brown, 2012, p. 64) **
 * 1) Gathering traditional test data regarding needs, values, and aptitudes
 * 2) Similar to Dawis (1996)
 * 3) These data can be used to **identify skills** that have been **developed** and the situations in which those **skills might be applied** in a manner that would result in satisfaction
 * 4) The use of modified vocational card sort of occupations represented of the occupational structure.
 * 5) A client would initially, be asked to sort the cards into two stacks: “in question” and “would choose.”
 * 6) The two stacks are then divided into categories that reflect self-efficacy.
 * 7) This sorting process helps the counselor identify some of the cognitions that underpin the decisions to eliminate or retain certain occupations in the sorting process and to examine the accuracy of those cognitions with client.
 * 8) Further Applications
 * 9) Applied to incarcerated women, lesbian women and gay men, and adults with mental illness.
 * 10) Women who have been sex-typing, such as women who may have little opportunity to engage in certain activities.


 * __ Summary: __**
 * SCCT suggests that career behavior is a result of interaction between self-efficacy, outcome expectation and goals.
 * SCCT can be applied both to understanding of clients' situations and to the development of the counselor role (Larson, 1998).
 * The responsibility of counselors to develop 'explicit awareness' of how, consciously or unconsciously, their own belief systems and world view can intrude in the interview has been identified by Constantine and Erickson (1998).

**__G.W. Peterson__** · career information processing model is based in learning theory that focuses on information processing, also the work of Meichenbaum The decision making process (deciding) can be subsumed under the acronym CASVE. Knowledge About Self --Application of Decision Making Style -Deciding Occupational Knowledge (Figure 3.1 The CIP Model of Occupational Choice. Source: From Career Development and Services adapted from this model) (Brown, 2012, p. 65).
 * Career Information Processing Model of Career Choice **
 * people develop two types of knowledge: **self**-**knowledge** and **knowledge** **about** **careers** (Brown, 2012, p.64)
 * When the time comes to make a career decision arrives, individuals draw on the information processing skills they have developed, subsumed under self knowledge about decision making (Brown, 2012, 64-65)
 * __Two Types of Knowledge Application Decision Making__**

· **Decision making process AKA CASVE** o **c-**//communication// - begins with a signal from inside or outside organism that a problem exists o **a-**//aspects// - individuals try to determine the aspects of the problem o **s-**//synthesis// - individuals generate potential solutions and then identify realistic options o **v-**//valuing// - a costs-benefits analysis is conducted based on the values system of the individual o **e-**//execution// - plans are developed and executed to act on the alternatives chosen

Include:
 * Metacognitions**
 * are very important to the decision making process(Brown, 2012, p.65).
 * are used in the deciding process are the cognitive functions essential to monitoring and regulating the decision making process (Brown, 2012, p.65).
 * __acquisition__, __storage__, __retrieval__, and __processing__ __info__ __concerning__ __career__ __problem__
 * __primary__ __metacognitions involve__ --> self talk, self awareness, and monitoring control
 * **self** **talk**: conversation decision makers have with themselves, must be positive when trying to make a decision (" I am good decision maker" and "There are many things I can do!")
 * **self** **awareness**: keeps them on task by producing the realizations that they are the ones most directly involved and by keeping out the superfluous factors (Brown, 2012, p. 64)
 * **monitoring** and **control function**: allowed them to understand they have obtained enough info, when they need to go back, and when it is time make the transition into the next stage. Has a temporal dimensions "Where am I in the decision making process?" or " Where do I need to be at this time?"


 * Career Thoughts Inventory**
 * -**developed in order to help people understand the factors used in making a decision(Brown,2012,p.66).

· Thinking about decision making, knowing how you make decisions, knowing about self, and knowing about options are involved in career choice according to the **CIP Model** · assesses the readiness of individuals to make well-reasoned career choices and their cognitive and affective capabilities to make those choices · __Potential__ __concern__: The client who is not a good decision maker.

· **Factors used to assess readiness** o high level of self-knowledge and willingness to use that knowledge in the decision making process o willingness to explore the world of work o motivation to learn about and engage in decision making process o awareness of how negative thoughts influence problem solving and willingness to seek assistance when necessary · Complexity factors such as family variables, employing organizations, society at large and economic variables may influence career choice

· **7 steps of career counseling** o initial interview - clarifies client's needs and establishes relationship with counselor. o preliminary assessment - determine client's readiness to engage in career decision making. o mutually define the problem and analyze causes o formulate goals o develop individual learning plan - consider resources and activities to help client meet goals o implement individual learning plan o //goal attainment evaluation// - assess client's ability to use skills/knowledge for future decision making · Model applies primarily to those who intend to make their own decisions · Clients must report their thoughts. May not be appropriate for use with certain populations who would be uncomfortable with this.

-Model is clearly for people who expect to make independent decision(Brown,2012,p.66). -Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) requires individuals to supply their thoughts and this could be difficult for some cultures minorities because that is seen as inappropriate(Brown, 2012,p.66).

= __**Postmodern Theories (Brown ch. 3)**__ =

· **Contextualist Theory**

o grounded in constructivism vs. positivism o Young et al: only way to understand individuals is in the context of their environments //as they experience them and make sense or meaning of the experiences// o actions of individuals //not// caused by past or present events o **Career-related behaviors** are //goal-directed results// of the individual's constructivist view. Personal views can result from culture, gender, etc. o joint actions: occur between people (client/counselor); joint goals; players engage in social actions of social and personal meaning; actions to help prepare for career. o projects: longer-term joint or individual actions (preparing for a career) o A role of career counselors - help your client project their narratives into future contexts(p.67) To understand this context of career decisions clients often construct narratives:
 * Result of unobservable behavior, individuals' views that cannot be observed & the meaning interpreted by others
 * To understand an event, one must start with the event, determine the individual's view of it, and proceed from that point.
 * Identify themes
 * The counselor "narrates" the themes
 * The client and counselor interpret the narration
 * The edit, change or extend the theme to future
 * The client and counselor work to help the client develop behavioral skills needed to implement future narrative themes

· **Chaos Theory**
o everything in the world is connected and unpredictable o fractals o 11 principles in her theory of career development (1)- Adaptive entities of which clients are an example have the ability to maintain themselves even though their shapes and components may change (p. 68). (2) They are open systems, taking energy from the environment and exporting energy in return (p. 68). (3) They are parts of networks, engaging in the interchange of resources. These networks can be depicted as ever-widening, linked concentric circles (thus the butterfly effect) (p. 68). (4) They are parts of other entities such as career, families, and leisure groups. These parts are called fractals (p. 68). (5) They are dynamic and thus every changing. In this process of changing forms and components, they move between order and chaos (p. 68). (6) They go through transitions and during these periods seek fitness peaks that maximize their chances of survival (p.68). (7) They behave in nonlinear ways because of multiple and unexplainable events that impinge on their functioning (p. 68). (8) They react so that small changes may bring about large effects ( p. 68). (9) They move through transitions. As they do, they may be constrained by what are termed attractors. They may return repeatedly to the same state (point attractors), swing from point to point in pendulum fashion (pendulum attractors), or move in circular, but non-centric, patterns (torus attractors) (p. 68). (10) Fractals, may as they move through transitions, create new fractals. (11) Fractals exist only as a part of the nested reality of the universe; they are interdependent. Spirituality is experiencing this unity with the universe (p. 68)
 * Bloch's theory
 * Bright and Pryor apply the theory to career counseling
 * //The Butterfly effect - "even the fragile movement of a butterfly's wings impacts everything else in our world and perhaps the universe. "//


 * People are interlinked with their careers and other networks. They continuously regenerate their careers, and moving freely among career pathways
 * People's careers, and thus their lives, range from orderly to chaotic as various amounts of resources and energy influences these changes. Small changes in a person's career often bring about large, unanticipated changes. As people are so interlinked with their work, the occurrence of such changes can greatly influence changes in other aspects of life.
 * When individuals undergo transitions, they search for "fitness" peaks, which are the best outcomes that people can hope for. Pressure to find this change can cause them to revert to the status quo, meaning no change occurs.
 * Ex. People can swing between desirable places/ jobs (fitness peaks, best outcomes occurring), or move through a circular fashion (reverting to the status quo).
 * C areers make sense only if examined using nonlinear logic, they are unpredictable. Shifting can only be understood from the individual's perspectives.

-**Pryor and Bright guide to the application of the chaos theory** (Brown, 2012, p.69)
 * 1) Career development is influenced by many factors and these factors are continuously changing
 * 2) Chance events have a major impact on career development
 * 3) Once the client can identify a pattern they are encouraged to relate them to past experiences
 * 4) When thinking back to previous decision, they should pay attention to what context they were in when they made the decision
 * 5) Identify attractors
 * **point** **attractors**: focused on __one__ __goal__
 * **pendulum** **attractor**: stuck in between __two__ __influences__
 * **torus** **attractor**: __repetitive__ patterns (are more complex)
 * **strange** **attractor**: __do not involve repetitive__ patterns (are counterintuitive and unlike the others do not involve repetitive patterns)

Creating Narratives
 * Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot.
 * This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot.
 * Howard (1989) noted that people tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and deemphasize other parts.

Ways in which Narratives help clients
 * A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end.
 * A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole.
 * The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished.
 * The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution.
 * It is aimed towards problem solving - finding exceptions to these events.

Ways to use a Narrative Approach in Career Counseling **Approaches to Postmodern theories**
 * Elaborate a career problem
 * Compose a life history
 * Build a future narrative
 * Construct reality
 * Change a life structure
 * Enact a role
 * Crystallize a decision

**1. Constructivist- Savickas**

- Constructivist theories, also known as postmodern theories differ from theories based on positivist philosophy - Human behavior cannot be studied objectively because it is nonlinear - Relationships that are cause and effect cannot be determined - People must be studied within the context that they function - Research data cannot be generalized - The researcher must not use their own values to guide the research (value-free process) - A legitimate source of data comes from the stories of the student - Purposeful sampling is used to find people that respond to the research in a purposeful way and find actual effects based on demonstrated needs (goal free) - Career counselors help clients come up with career goals by focusing on their stories and using qualitative assessment procedures
 * "Life Themes"
 * "consists of a problem or a set of problems which a person wishes to solve above everything else and the means the person finds to achieve a solution"
 * a poor child that grow up to be wealthy, a sickly child that grow up to be a bodybuilder
 * Life themes are extracted from narratives
 * a narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end
 * a story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole
 * the plot of the narrative specifies what has been accomplished
 * the structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts to resolve it, and a resolution
 * Career Style Interview Questions (From class handout of 10/19/13)
 * How can I be useful to you as you construct your career?
 * Who do you admire? Who would you like to pattern your life after?
 * Do you read magazines regularly? Which ones?
 * What do you like to do with your free time?
 * Do you have a favorite saying or motto?
 * What are your three favorite subjects in junior high and high school?
 * What are your earliest recollections? I am interested in hearing three stories about things you recall happening to you when you were three to six years old. For each of these stories, provide a 6-10 word title that would read as a newspaper headline.
 * Interpreting Career Style Interviews (from class notes on 10/19/2013)
 * **1st** make sense of stories by reviewing how the client wants to use counseling
 * Is the client guarded?
 * Does the client want to be told what to be?
 * Is the client leaning towards one direction?
 * **2nd** pay attention to the verbs used
 * What do they tell you about the dynamics of person's life?
 * **3rd** examine headlines for each of three recollections
 * Are there any themes?
 * Are there emotionally charges words?
 * **4th** examine interview through Holland's hexagonal lense
 * Postmodern Career Counselor**
 * 1) Career development influenced by a number of factors
 * 2) Factors cannot be predicted
 * 3) Nonlinear abductive reasoning can be used to understand patterns. These patterns should be looked at in context of past events.
 * 4) Past decisions should be considered in context of past events.
 * 5) Clients should identify attractors (constraints) in their system
 * **Pendulum**
 * **Point**
 * **Torus**
 * **Strange**

** 2. Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling - An approach to Postmodern Career Counseling **

Steve de Shazer (1985)

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Uses client stories to identify their constructs and integrate their constructs for future use. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">This theory was NOT developed to address mental health problems like depression or decisional anxiety and if the client presents with either these issues can be a barrier to SFBCC. A counselor should address these issues PRIOR to using this strategy if they are present.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">The sequence of Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling (SFBCC) is as follows:

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(1). The client identifies the problem to be addressed; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(2). The client identifies the changes (goals) to be made and scales the goals; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(3). The client is encouraged to search for exceptions, that is, times when they were able to solve similar problems; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(4). The client identifies personal strengths and strategies used in past successes that can be used to resolve the identified problem; <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(5). The counselor and the client revisit the goal, scale it, and develop a plan to resolve or reduce the impact of the problem that was presented <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">(6). The counselor may engage in second-order questioning if the client is "stuck". 1.) //**Relationship Development**//: The career counselor avoids assuming the role of expert, instead encouraging clients to assume control of finding their own solution. Counselors may describe themselves as coaches or facilitators. 2.) //**Client Presentation of Issue:**// encourage client to set a goal and focus on the positive (goal attainment) and the future. An example of this is a client who lost their job to the recession, and he/she blames the economy for job loss. Dwelling on the negative doesn't solve the problem. **Magic Question:** If you were to wake up one morning and the problem were resolved, what would have changed? Because the client has no control over the supervisor, he or she would be asked to rethink the outcome in terms of factors that the client can control, such as the client's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors (p.72). 3.) //**Search for Exceptions:**// A search for strengths; The counselor reinforces past attempts and successes (p. 72). The counselor may prompt with some of the following leads "Think of a time when you made a difficult decision. What was different then? What was the decision-making process like?How did you feel as you made the decision? Who was helpful in the process? What resources did you use?" The counselor reinforces past attempts and successes. 4.) **After exceptions are found:** what personal strengths can you identify that will help you achieve your goal? During this part of the process the career counselor might use devices such as self-estimates of abilities as aids to identifying strengths (p. 72). 5.) **Develop a plan and scale the goal.** The client is asked to scale their goal. Scaling is rating the progression of achieving the goal. The client is aiding in acquiring a plan to keep progressing towards the goal (p.72). Anything that helped or inhibited the plan is discussed. If roadblocks occurred, the plan may be modified here. The goal is scaled at the end of each follow up session to keep visual progression towards the goal (p.72). Amundson and de Shazer each had their own approach in second-order questioning. According to de Shazer, second-order questioning allow the client to imagine what the future would be like if they did find solutions for their problem. Amundson’s approach in second-order questioning strengthens the client’s understanding that some beliefs they hold might not be valid (p.72).
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; line-height: normal;">After strengths are identified, develop a plan and scale (rating movement towards goal achievement) it
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal;">a. Revisiting the goal occurs in follow-up sessions
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal;">Second order questioning involves what would happen if the problem is not addressed. Can say:
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal;">"Speculate about the future if your problem is not addressed (p. 72)"
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: normal;">"Tell me about how you arrived at the conclusion that you are not able to handle work related stressors."
 * 6.) Follow-up sessions.**
 * 7.) Ask second-order questions.**

Miracle question: what would change if this thing was to happen?
 * Focused on what the client WILL do, not what the client WON'T do**
 * Scaling questions: meaningful descriptions, puts things in perspective**


 * Scaling Questions:**
 * Can be used to focus the entire session
 * Can assist clients in constructing meaningful descriptions of their concerns, goals, strengths, and motivation.
 * Ex). What does that place on the scale look like? What would be different at this point?
 * What would you need to move one point up on the scale?


 * WISHED**
 * Questions: where, what, who. NOT why**
 * Instead: positive instead of negatively worded goals**
 * Suppose this were to happen**
 * How**
 * Emphasize positive differences**
 * Draw or write positives**

=__Socioeconomic Theories__= · Purpose is to help increase understanding of sociological and economic factors on career choice and development
 * Focus on small and large group behavior
 * The individual is an important variable - particularly race, ethnicity, academic aptitude, & gender
 * places emphasis on factors that are beyond the individual's control

Status Attainment Theory

 * Family status and cognitive variables combine through //social-psychological processes// to influence educational attainment, which in turn impacts occupational attainment and earnings
 * Socioeconomic status of one's family influences education, which in turn affects the occupation entered.

Dual Labor Market Theory

 * There are two types of businesses in our labor market: (1)core (2) peripheral
 * __**Core firms**__ have internal labor markets that have well-developed career paths and offer opportunities for upward mobility; these firms have dominant roles in the markets in which they compete (p. 73).
 * __**Peripheral firms**__ make no long-term commitments and have little chance of upward mobility; employees are paid by the job and furloughed when no longer needed (p. 73).

Race, Gender, & Career

 * African Americans earn less than whites
 * Females earn less than males
 * males and females are largely segregated in the workplace - women often in occupations with lower income and status (Brown, 2012, p.73)

Status and Use of Socioeconomic Theories

 * purpose is to help people understand that sociological and economics play a role in career development(Brown, 2012,p.74).
 * Research has indicated that is unequal opportunities for everyone(Brown, 2012, p.74).
 * Social status, related to occupational choice, a powerful predictor of ultimate occupational attainment (Brown, 2012, p.74).

__ Theories of Decision Making __ Jespen and Dilley (1974) and Wright (1984) Mitchell (1975) created four elements of preferences by decision-making Tversky (1972)- Proposed model that he names //"elimination by aspects" (p. 74).// Vroom- Key terms: Pressure to make choices is equal to the sum of the valences and and the strength of expectations Janis and Mann (1977) assume conflict is caused when a person is faced with a decision. They developed the balance sheet as a means of helping high school students enhance their decision making as it related to career choice. Process continues through several steps with these questions: > *Brown (2012) writes that both the ideas of Vroom and Janis & Mann are crucial to the decision making process and interact to form the decision.
 * Prescriptive models- how decisions should be made
 * Descriptive models- how decisions are actually made
 * They also state that the process involves a decision maker and a situation in which two or more alternatives exist that carry potential outcomes of variable significance for the decision maker (p. 74).
 * Absolute constraints- factors that must be present or absent for alternatives to be viable
 * Negative characteristics- undesirable aspects
 * Positive characteristics- desirable aspects
 * Neutral characteristics- aspects present but irrelevant to choice to be made
 * The decision maker can use these elements in a variety of ways, such as comparing only positive characteristics;considering alternatives singly, matching positive versus negative characteristics; rejecting an alternative because of negative characteristics; and other combinations (p. 74).
 * This approach focuses on all choices simultaneously, with each choice having a variety of characteristics (p. 74)
 * The characteristics for each alternative is matched and those that fail to meet the decision maker's minimum standard are eliminated (p. 75).
 * Valence- preferences
 * Expectancies- belief that choices can be realized
 * Are risks involved if I do not change?
 * Are the risks serious if I do not change?
 * Can I hope to find a viable solution to the problem?
 * Is there sufficient time to search for viable solutions?
 * //**The individual who answers the final question affirmatively is considered to be in a state of vigilance, in which attention can be given to acquiring information about alternatives and to weighing the advantages and disadvantages to each.**//
 * This is considered to be the most favorable situation for reaching an appropriate decision (p. 75).


 * Reference**

Brown, D. (2012). Career Information, Career Counseling, And Career Development. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.