Compare+and+Contrast+Chart

Compare and Contrast Theories Chart

Ages 3-5 orientation to size and power Ages 6-8 orientation to sex roles Ages 9-13 orientation to social valuation Ages 14 + choices explored __Key Terms:__ Circumscription – process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class Compromise – process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors || 4 assumptions to how career aspirations develop: People also develop cognitive maps of occupations along these dimensions: M & F of occupation, prestige of the occupation, fields of work Pages 49-52 (Brown) || 1. __Growth__: physical and psychological 2. __Exploratory__: occupation aspect of life (phases: fantasy, tentative, final) 3. __Establishmen__t: early encounters within work experience (phases: trail, stable) 4. __Maintenance__: continue or improve occupational situation 5. __Decline__: pre-retirement period
 * ** Theory and Important Names ** || ====**Theory Category**==== || ** Stages or Important Words ** || ** Main Ideas ** ||
 * Linda Gottfredson (Theory of Circumscription and Compromise) || Developmental || ====**Developmental Stages**====
 * social self + psychological self = self concept
 * Social self more important determinant of occupational aspirations
 * 1) begins in childhood
 * 2) aspirations are attempts to implement one’s self concept
 * 3) career satisfaction depends on degree to which career is congruent with self-perceptions
 * 4) people develop occupational stereotypes that guide them in selection process
 * Don Super (Life Rainbow/ Life Span, Life Space Theory) || Developmental || ====**Stages**====

Life Roles/Life Career Rainbow
1. Child 2. Student 3. Worker 4. Spouse 5. Parent 6. Homemaker 7. Citizen 8. Leisurite 9. Annuitant

Key Terms
__Role-Salience__ – the relative importance one places on a particular role in one’s life leads to life structure __Personal Construct__ – extended definition of self-concept includes internalized personal view of self but also of individual’s view of situation __Career maturity__ – individual’s readiness to cope with developmental tasks that are presented by society’s expectations

**Career Counseling Implications:**
Career Development Inventory: career planning (CP), career exploration (CE), decision making (DM), world of work information(WWI), knowledge of preferred occupations(PO), and career orientation(COT). || See pages 42-49 (Brown) for Super’s 14 theoretical statements 1) people differ in abilities, needs, personalities, etc. 2) people are qualified for a number of occupations by virtue of their characteristics 3) each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits 4) vocational preference and competencies change with time and experience; self-concepts are increasingly stable beginning in late adolescence 5) process of change is a series of life stages characterized as a sequence of growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance, and decline 6) the nature of career pattern is determined by a number of factors including parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality, and opportunity 7) success in coping with environmental demands depends on career maturity 8) career maturity is a hypothetical construct 9) life stage development can be guided partly by the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and development of self-concepts 10) career development is developing and implementing occupational self-concepts 11) several factors influence the process of compromise between individual and social factors (values, interests, etc.) 12) work and life satisfaction depend on the extent to which the individual finds adequate outlets for abilities, needs, values, interests, personality traits, etc. 13) work satisfaction is proportional to the degree to which the person has been able to implement self-concepts 14) work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization || Tool: Life Value Inventory P must have good fit with E __Investigative__ – intellectual, rational, analytical __Artistic__ – creative, abstract __Social__ – patient, empathetic __Enterprising__ – assertive, ambitious __Conventiona__l – precise, organized, practical
 * Duane Brown || Trait-Factor || ===Key Terms===
 * Values**: beliefs experienced by individual as standards regarding how she/he should function; cognitive structures with behavioral and Effective dimensions
 * Values form the basis for goal setting
 * Values can influence importance and clarity of goal if they are crystallized and prioritized.
 * Values are recognized representations of needs that, when developed, provide standards for behavior.
 * Values are a major factor in motivation because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects.
 * Values development can be faulty with a result that the person has a distorted view of normative standards and modes of interaction within roles and the broader community.
 * For a job to be satisfying, individuals must engage in activities that they believe are worthwhile.
 * Values develop through enculturation
 * modeling
 * reinforcement
 * experience
 * Two types of values:
 * cultural
 * role-related
 * Norms:** the group's counterpart to an individual's values; can be published or unpublished || See pages 63-65 (Brown,2016) for Brown’s propositions
 * Include:
 * human nature (good, bad, neither)
 * person-nature relationship
 * time orientation
 * activity (doing or being, which is more important?)
 * self control
 * social relationships--individualism vs collectivism
 * collateral--respect (?)
 * allocentrism--groups concerns ahead of the individual ||
 * Parson's Trait & Factor Theory || Trait-Factor || ===Key Terms===
 * P** = Person
 * E**= Environment || Person (P) has basic needs and values as does Environment (E)
 * true reasoning" is used to find a career
 * one-person, one-job relationship
 * individual needs to learn about his/her interests and understand skills needed for jobs in order to pick a job that satisfies interests ||
 * Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments: John Holland || Trait- Factor || __Six Personality Types:__ __Realistic__ – opinionated. strong

**Key Terms**
__Congruence__ – match between person and person’s environment (high congruence is thought to be associated with long-term job satisfaction and tenure) __Differentiation__ – degree of definition of individual’s interests; clear distinction between an individual’s likes and dislikes __Consistency__ – reflection of internal coherence of an individual’s interest in terms of hexagonal arrangement __Identity__ – provides estimate of clarity and stability of a person’s identity or his/her goals and talents || People can be categorized according to six personality types; no pure types Personality types develop as a result of both environmental and genetic influences People choose careers which are consistent with their personality types Uses the types to describe six work environments, which are sought by individuals with similar personality types Uses hexagon to determine amount of consistency between personality/environment types, adjacent types are said to be consistent, opposite types are inconsistent. Assumptions of Holland’s Theory (p. 34) || __Celerity__ – quickness with which workers engage their environments to satisfy their needs __Pace__ – vigor with which individual and work environment try to satisfy their needs __Endurance__ – tolerance of the individual of the work environment for dealing with unsatisfactory work conditions __Rhythm__ – pattern of attempts by individual and work environment to satisfy their needs __Correspondence__ – when an individual selects an occupation that matches his or her personality type (Holland’s concept of congruence) || Basic assumption is that people have two types of needs: biological and psychological; these needs give rise to drive states, which in turn lead to vocational behavior Three variables – skills, aptitudes, and personality structure – to predict success of worker Pages 34-37 (Brown) || 1. Genetic endowment and special abilities 2. Environmental conditions and events 3. Learning experiences 4. Task approach skills Self-observation generalizations and world-view generalizations Four Fundamental Trends: Instrumental – individual actions of environment Associative – reaction to external stimuli, pairing two events in time and location Conceptualized as one theory with two parts: __Part 1__: social learning theory of career decision making (explains the origins of career choice; it is designed to address the **WHY** behind decisions to enter, change, or express interest in educational programs or occupations) (class notes October 9th, 2013) __Part 2__: learning theory of career counseling (explains what career counselors can do about many career related problems) Pages 60-62 (Brown) ||
 * Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA): R.V. Dawis || Trait-Factor || **__Key Terms:__** **satisfaction**-worker's expectations & needs (person). How the work meets the needs and expectations of the employee (Examples: hours, wage/salary, health benefits, vacation time, environment, co-worker atmosphere, etc)
 * satisfactoriness**-the needs/expectations of the environment of the worker (environment). How the employee meets the needs to fulfill job requirements (examples: promptness, follows responsibilities, professionalism, assertiveness, honesty, competent)
 * __Career success depends on:__**
 * Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making/Learning Theory of Career Counseling: Krumboltz || Learning Theory || Four factors that influence career decision making path:
 * Work habits, mental sets, perceptual and thought processes, performance standards and values
 * 1) People need to expand their capabilities and interest; not base decisions on existing characteristics only.
 * 2) People need to prepare for changing work tasks, not assume that occupations will remain stable.
 * 3) People need to be empowered to take action, not merely to be given a diagnosis.
 * 4) Career counselors need to play a major role in dealing with all career problems, not just occupational selection. || Two types of learning experiences:
 * Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) of Lent, Brown, Hackett (1994, 2002) || Learning Theory || The basis of SCCT is rooted in Albert Bandura’s (1986) “Social Cognitive” model (as cited in Brown, 2016, p. 91). There are “core variables” to the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) model (Lent et al., 2016, p. 48):
 * **self-efficacy** (the belief in one’s ability);
 * **outcome expectations** (“anticipated consequences” whether positive or negative);
 * and **goal-relevant behavior** (willingness to “adapt”);
 * **personality traits**;
 * “**contextual** supports and barriers”

Lent, R.W., Ezeofor, I., Morrison, A., Penn, L.T., Ireland, G.W. (2016). Applying the social cognitive model of career self-management to career exploration and decision-making. //Journal of Vocational Behavior//, //93//, 47-57. || Self-Efficacy Theory Key Constructs: __**Interests**__- preference for activities __**Distal barriers and supports**__ - factors that hinder or facilitate the development of learning experiences and self-efficacy __**Proximal barriers and supports**__ - factors that hinder or facilitate implementation of career choices that are close in time to the choice __**Contextual affordances**__ - environmental resources and obstacles that shape career development || __analysis__- individuals try to determine the aspects of the problem __synthesis__- individuals generate potential solutions and then identify realistic options __valuing__- a costs-benefits analysis is conducted based on the values system of the individual __execution__- plans are developed and executed to act on the alternatives chosen || 7 steps of career counseling: Pages 64-66 (Brown) > ||
 * __Self-efficacy__**- confidence in ability to accomplish tasks in a particular domain
 * __Outcome expectations__** - outcomes expected of domain-specific actions
 * Career Information Processing Model (CIP): G.W. Peterson || Learning Theory || **__Decision Making Process (CASVE)__** __communication__- begins with signal from inside or outside organism that a problem exists
 * 1) initial interview
 * 2) preliminary assessment
 * 3) mutually define problem and analyze causes
 * 4) formulate goals
 * 5) develop individual learning plan
 * 6) implement individual learning plan
 * 7) goal attainment evaluation
 * Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling (SFBCC): Shazer (1985) || Post-modern || **Terms**
 * **Exceptions:** times when a client was able to solve similar problems
 * **Second-ordering questioning:**
 * Shazer's (1985) definition: focuses client on what would happen if the career problem that was identified at the outset is not addressed
 * Amundson (2003) definition: used to facilitate the client's understanding that the evidence suggests some of his or her beliefs may be off target

1. The client identifies the issues to be addressed. 2. The client identifies the changes (goals) to be made and scales those goals 3. The client is encouraged to search for exceptions 4. The client identifies personal strengths and strategies used in past successes that can be applied to current problem (Brown, 2012, p. 71). 5. In follow up sessions, the counselor and client can revisit the goal, scale it, and develop a plan for resolution of problem (Brown, 2012, p.71). 6. The counselor may engage in second-order questioning if the client is "stuck" || Main ideas:
 * Sequence of SFBCC**

> > Brown, D. (2012). //Career information, career counseling, and career development// (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. > > Henderson, D. A., & Thompson, C. L. (2011). //Counseling children// (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. ||
 * Solution-focused brief counseling supports that concentrating on positive aspects in an individual’s life develops self-worth, optimism, and starts a process of change using a client’s available strengths and resources (Henderson & Thompson, 2011).
 * SFBT focuses on solutions instead of on problems (Henderson & Thompson, 2011).
 * SFBT assumes that no problem occurs all of the time, so it is important to identity exceptions in times where the problem does not occur (Henderson & Thompson, 2011).
 * Like most post-modern theories, it is important to elicit client's stories to help them identify their constructs and integrate their constructs into a plan for the future (Brown, 2012).
 * Not intended to address mental health problems such as depression or decisional anxiety (Brown, 2012, p.71)
 * Bloch (Chaos Theory) || Post-modern || Characteristics of the adaptive entity of careers:
 * 1) Autopiesis
 * 2) Open exchange
 * 3) Participation in networks
 * 4) Fractals
 * 5) Phase transitions between order and chaos
 * 6) Search for fitness peaks
 * 7) Nonlinear dynamics
 * 8) Sensitive dependence, or the potential for small changes to bring about large effects
 * 9) Attractors that limit growth
 * 10) Role of strange attractors and emergence
 * 11) Spirituality || 7 Ways to connect spirit and work:
 * 12) Change: open to change in self and world
 * 13) Balance: finding balance among all activities of life
 * 14) Energy: feeling as if you have enough energy to do the things you want to do
 * 15) Community: working within a team or group
 * 16) Calling: believing that one is called to the work being done
 * 17) Harmony: one's talents, interests, and values harmonize with one's work environment
 * 18) Unity: believing that one's work has a purpose

Pages 67-68 (Brown) || Young, Valach, and Collin (2002) || Post-modern || The only way to understand individuals is in the context of their environments // as they experience them and make sense or meaning of the experiences. //
 * Contextualist Theory of Career

1. Construction - client gives micro-narratives 2. Deconstruction - counselor finds inaccurate self-narratives or self-limiting ideas of client 3. Reconstruction - counselor weaves micro-narratives into macro story 4. Coconstruction: meaning-making between client and counselor - perhaps create a new life-script 5. Action: Make realistic goals
 * 5-Step Approach: **
 * 1) Evoking stories
 * 2) Identifying themes
 * 3) Interpreting the problem
 * 4) Editing or changing the theme(s)
 * 5) Extending to future || * actions of individuals // not // caused by past or present events
 * career-related behaviors are // goal-directed results // of the individual's constructivist view
 * unobservable bx: internal processes and the individual's experiential interpretation
 * joint actions: occur between people
 * joint goals: players engage in social actions of social and personal meaning
 * projects: longer-term joint or individual actions (preparing for a career) ||
 * Savickas || Post-modern || Life design stages

Savickas, M.L. (2015). //Life-design counseling manual//. (n.p.): Author.

Savickas, M.L. (2012). Life design: A paradigm for career intervention in the 21st century. //Journal of Counseling & Development//, //90//, 13-19. || =====Believes career development must have a future time orientation=====

**Information from article-Constructivist Counseling for Career Indecision (Savickas, 1995) **
|| Postmodern/ Constructivist ||  || __Positivist__ Human Nature**- objective** Cause/Effect**- Can be determined** Research**-Value free** Contexts**- Individuals can be studied outside of context** Research Results- **Can be generalized //if done well//** Objectivity**- Counselors should remain objective** || __Postmodern/Constructivist__ Human Nature**- subjective** Cause/Effect**- Cannot be determined** Research- **Never value free** Contexts- **Individuals can never be studied outside of context** Research Results**- Can never be generalized** Objectivity-** Counselors cannot be objective ||
 * Positivist vs.