Midterm+Study+Guide

__Socioeconomic theories__ This refers to sociologists and economists joining their variables and thoughts about career development.
 * Status Attainment Theory**: this is the idea that ones family influence and socioeconomic status lead to decisions being made about education and therefore, careers.
 * Dual Labor Market Theory**: This contains two ideas, core and peripheral. Core are markets that are well-developed and have opportunities for an individual to move up and stay within the market. Peripheral do not have long-term commitments and only use individuals on a job-by-job basis.
 * Race, Gender and Career:** Research shows that there are differences in career and earnings from a career due to race and/or gender. Just for some examples, males often earn more than females and African-Americans earn less than whites.

__**PERTINENT INFO. from BROWN'S CHAPT. 1: Introduction to Career Information, Career Counseling, and Career Development**__


 * The decade of the 1970s was important to career development in public schools because of the funding of a concept known as: CAREER EDUCATION


 * Federal funding was provided for 500 career education programs in school districts throughout the United States.


 * In the mid-1960s serious efforts began to apply computer technology to career and educational planning and assessment.


 * Jo Ann Harris-Bowlsby was instrumental in the planning that led to the development of the Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS) in 1968.


 * During this same period, Donald Super and Roger Myers of Columbia University were working with Frank Minor of IBM to develop the Educational and Career Exploration System (ECES).

__**The impact of the global economy**__ The interconnectedness of the major economies of the world is a reality, and the economic recession that began in 2008 is a reminder of this. __**What factors led to globalization ?**__ Three flatteners However, what truly brought forth globalization was the failure of communism as an economic system, the realization of the free market system was the engine of wealth and job production, and the realization that technology could accommodate a variety of businesses that flattened the earth. __**Is a new model for career development practice needed?**__
 * Today, desk top computers handle programs such as DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS, which are direct descendants of ISVD and ECES, with ease.
 * January 2008 the unemployment rate in the US stood at 4.9%
 * It climbed to 7.2% by Dec 2008 and eventually reached more than 10%
 * The unemployment rates in other countries skyrocketed due to the purchasing power of U.S. declining
 * This resulted in high levels of credit card debt, the inability of home owners to make mortgage payments, high levels of foreclosures by lending institutions.
 * European Union unemployment rate stood at 9.2% ( Spain 19.3% and Ireland 13% the highest rates)
 * Russia's economy depends on oil and as the price of oil continues to decline, the unemployment rates will rise.
 * China has the most carefully managed economy but the urban employment rate stood at 4.2% in August 2009
 * Japan unemployment rates stood at 5.3%
 * This shows that when one country suffers major economical set back it causes other countries to suffer as well, typically in the form of lower employment.
 * The global economy has given us new vocabulary and a new reality about the labor market
 * Offshoring- We saw this as a way to increase profits because of lower wages and fewer government regulations and environmental protection requirements in those countries (p. 3).
 * Workforce restructuring
 * Outsourcing-Difference between U.S. wages and those in other countries.
 * insourcing- Wage differential is one of the reasons for insourcing because of the placement for jobs in the U.S. by businesses in other countries.
 * home sourcing
 * in-forming
 * These new words demonstrate how jobs are now offered on a competitive basis to workers around the world.
 * Friedman (2005) U.S workers will increasingly find themselves looking for jobs outside of this countr, and they need to prepare for the eventually.
 * 1) the fall of the Berlin Wall, which opened up the economies of the Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union
 * 2) The internet: first commercial was in the 1990s, the digital divided developed between richer and poorer countries
 * 3) The advent of outsourcing and offshoring
 * __Social Justice in the United States__**
 * Early adovcates for career development were concerned about oppression and social justice, including economic equity, as are career development practitioners today.
 * Economic equity is at the forefront of the debate about social justice.
 * the best method of providing health care for the uninsured millions in this country. Once this is settled, hopefully the debate will focus on two related issues: improving education and eliminating the digital divide
 * Our education system fails 30% of students who leave school before graduation and countless other who graduate
 * The inability of people to afford computers and Internet service makes them ill-prepared to take advantage of the opportunities in countries other than their own.
 * **Social justice cannot be fully realized unless people have meaningful jobs**
 * it is not enough to have legislation that precludes discrimination in the workplace when the opportunity to prepare for and enter those jobs is missing.
 * Wage differentials between men and women, whites, and people of color illustrate that economic equity is an unrealized dream.
 * The need for advocacy for the poor and marginalized is not something of the past.

Prilleltensky criticized the traditional approach as being value-free model that embraces individualism and meritocracy. Advocates of the traditional model paid little attention to the factors that led to the oppression, discrimination, and marginalization of millions of people, they did not address the inequitable distribution of power and money in U.S. society. Most of the career development models focus on providing one-to-one assistance to client groups do not provide a basis for addressing the social ills of many of our client groups.
 * goal-oriented change is possible: people are self-determining and can better themselves if they want.
 * Empowerment model**
 * second candidate to underpin career development
 * aimed at equalizing power and subscribes to a distributive philosophy that suggests that all people should have somewhat equal access to the benefits of society.
 * Postmodernism was dismissed as a third option because of its relativism on the issues of values
 * Emancipatory communitarianism**
 * would focus on the interaction between the contexts in which individual functions and the individual
 * overcoming the barriers present in those contexts would help prepare individuals to make judicious career choices and transform the contexts into supportive elements.
 * it is important to have a holistic approach

practice has almost always outstripped theory in the career development arena, and practitioners need not wait for theorists to provide models ahead.

Career development practitioners can borrow, edit and collaborate in the changing process.

**History of Vocational Guidance and Career Development (Brown, Chapter 1)** · In 1901, Frank Parsons founded the Civic Service House in the north end of Boston.

· Their activities were aimed to empower workers. A federal agency, the Employment Management Association was formed in 1913
 * local reforms was the settlement house, which was a place in a working-class neighborhood that housed researchers who studied people's lives and problems in the neighborhood.
 * its goal was to promote vocational guidance in business and in industry.

· In the 1930s during the Great Depression the systematic occupational information became available in the form of the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). Then came the O*NET in the late twentieth century. The transition from the DOT to the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) was completed in 2001.

· In 1970s the funding of career education took place in public school because the concept of career education was supported federally.

· Jo Ann Harris-Bowlsby was instrumental in the planning that led to the development of the Computerized Vocational Information System (CVIS) in 1968. Today, desktop handle programs such as DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS, which are direct descendants of ISVD and ECES, with ease.
 * method to store information on about 400 occupations
 * continued as a pilot program until 1972 when it was established as a demonstration project and widely adopted

History and Need for Career Guidance-An Overview of Brown's Chapter One **__ Need for Career Development __** · Early advocates for career development were concerned about oppression and social justice. · It is not enough to have non-discrimination legislation if there is a lack of education for minorities. · Being successful at career development includes a number of factors such as knowledge of self, knowledge of careers, decision making skills, ability to work as a team and appreciate the differences of others, understanding that learning is a life-long process, understanding that on-going training is necessary for career success, and strong employability skills such as interviewing skills, being able to research and apply for jobs on the Internet, and the ability to make contacts with employers. · Traditional theories of career development do not address racism, sexism, and political and economic disenfranchisement. Post Modern theories supposedly address these issues. · In 2003 the unemployment rate for minorities was much higher than that of whites. Approximate rates were: Whites 5% Hispanics 7% African-Americans 10% · In 2003 median family income for whites was much higher than for minorities. Approximate rates were: Whites $43,000 Hispanics $33,000 African-Americans 30,000 and Asians $55,000 · In 2005 men made more money than women-Men $40,000 Women $30,000 · Women’s lower income was because of taking time off for families, picking jobs that do not pay as much money, and discrimination. · Three times as many African-American workers took the only job available to them compared to Whites. · African-Americans were more than twice as likely as Whites to need career development assistance. · Individuals with severe disabilities have typically been discriminated against or were able to do some types of work, but were not well represented in the workforce. · Civil rights at the national level have not been extended to homosexuals. · Outsourcing of jobs continues to be an issue in the U.S.  · Gallup Survey Says: · 1 in 10 adults need assistance in selecting or acquiring a job. · 7 in 10 would get more job information if starting over · 4 in 10 have careers as result of conscious plan (these are more educated folks) · 30% of adults used no information in quest for employment. · More need for career information for minorities than whites. · High school grads less likely to use Internet to get jobs than college grads. · Only 53% of survey respondents said they think they will need further training to maintain their job. · High school students having trouble transitioning from school to work. We should encourage vocational programs more. · Students with disabilities having trouble transitioning from school to work. · Most people don’t get written notice they are losing their jobs. It takes them a long time to find another job and when they do find jobs, many take a 20% pay cut. · Downsizing and outsourcing responsible for job loss. Manufacturing is hardest hit, but other jobs like Engineering are starting to follow and be outsourced to foreign countries. · More senior citizens are staying in the labor market and retiring later. Decrease in their poverty rate. Need for more services for these folks. · Working Poor-Those individuals who work, but whose income falls below poverty level. · Minorities classified more as working poor than whites · High school drop-outs more likely to be working poor. · Does include a small percentage of folks that graduated or attended college. · Working poor mostly work in private households, farming, forestry, or fishing. **__ Definitions __** · Vocation-Called by God to one’s career. Career choice is better word. · Position-Group of tasks performed by one individual-As many positions exist as do workers · Job-Group of similar positions at a single business · Occupation-Group of similar jobs at several businesses. · Career-The totality of work one does in a lifetime, career can be viewed as work and leisure, positions one holds over a lifetime of which occupation is only one (life roles), Sears (1982) a series of paid or unpaid occupations or jobs that one holds throughout his or her life. Last definition is best. · Career Development-A lifelong process involving psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors, as well as chance factors that interact to influence career development and culture · Career Intervention-deliberate act aimed at enhancing someone’s career development. Can include career guidance, education, coaching, career development, career counseling, and career information · Career Guidance (now called Career Development Programs)-career information, activities to enhance self-awareness such as assessments, career planning classes, individual career counseling, and job placement, etc. · Career Education- coined in 1970s, More in depth than career guidance-Makes careers part of everyday curriculum, job shadows, internships, lab experiences that simulate business, field trips, etc. · Career Counseling-Meeting with one client or group of clients to discuss career choice or career adjustment problems. Goal setting and intervention are important. · Career Information-Labor Market Info. Ex. Workforce Investment Board · Career Coaching-Managers try to develop talent within the company. This is also a private industry where professionals coach you to success in your field. · Work-exertion or effort directed to produce or accomplish something not solely for leisure (can be paid or unpaid work) **__ Publications __** · //Career Development Quarterly// published by National Career Development Association · //Journal of Counseling Psychology// published by American Psychological Association · //Journal of Vocational Behavior// (counseling psychologists) · //Journal of Career Development// · Association of Training & Development (not a journal-focuses on career dev. In business and industry)
 * The need for career development services is at its highest point since the Great Depression of the 1930s
 * Oct 2009 the unemployment rate stood at 10.2%= 15.7 million unemployed
 * long-term unemployed (27 weeks or more) stood 5.6 million = 35.6% of the unemployed
 * of employed, 9.3 million worked part-time because full-time employment was not available
 * Discouraged workers: people who have given up searching for a job = 1.6 million
 * They are dynamic and unfold throughout life, may include pre-vocational and post vocational concerns as well as integration of work with other roles: family, community, leisure.

**__ Important Career Legislation __** · Equal Employment Opportunity Act · Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) · Ticket to Work · Incentives Improvement Act of 1990 · Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA)

**__ History of Career Development __** · Began with immigrants coming to U.S. who lacked education and were unprepared for the workforce. · Salmon Richards publishes //Vacophy// in 1883, which calls for //Vacophers// in every town to provide vocational assistance · 1901-Frank Parsons (father of career counseling movement) founds the Boston Civic Service House · 1908-Vocation Bureau opens · National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education (NSPIE) begins in 1906 · National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) 1913 · Employment Management Association (EMA) forms in 1913 · NSPIE achieves Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, which lays foundation for land-grant universities and vocational education in public schools. · 1917-Army Alpha-1st group intelligence test · Career development pioneers were George Merrill, Jesse B. Davis, Frank Parsons, and Anna Reed. · Merrill experimented with vocational guidance at the California School of Mechanical Arts in San Francisco · Davis teaches about world of work at Detroit High School and encourages teachers to relate subject matter to jobs · Reed develops vocational guidance program in Brooklyn, New York · Frank Parsons wrote //Choosing A Vocation//, which provides guidance for 1st part of 21st Century · 1933-New Deal creates jobs during Great Depression · 1939-Dictionary of Occupational Titles first published · 1951-American Personnel and Guidance Association forms · 1952-Career journal first published and will later become //Career Development Quarterly// · 1953-Don Super publishes “A Theory of Vocational Development” · 1957-National Defense Education Act-Money to get students interested in math and science based careers as response to Russian threat · 1959-John Holland publishes a “A Theory of Vocational Guidance”. · 1960s-Apply computer technology to career and educational planning · Harris-Bowlsby-Computerized Vocational Information System · Donald Super, Roger Myers, IBM-Educational and Career Exploration System · Tiedeman-Informational System for Vocational Decisions · Today we have DISCOVER and SIGI PLUS · 1982-The NVGA establishes competencies for career counselors. · 1983-The NVGA establishes National Certified Career Counselor Certification · 1989-Gallup Poll conducted to assess career needs of general public · 1994-School to Work Opportunities Act · 2001-Dictionary of Occupational Titles becomes O-NET and is now online

**__ Why do People Work? __**  · To meet biological (survival) needs for food, shelter, clothing

==== · For self-esteem-People feel a sense of mastery in dealing with objects of work, and their self-esteem is enhanced because they are engaging in activities that produce something other people value (p.18). When people do not feel productive they suffer low self-esteem ====
 * Status, recognition, affilitation


 * Work has had religious and theological meanings in history**
 * In early Hebrew, work was looked at as punishment
 * Early Christians took offense when work was done for profit
 * During the Reformation, work was considered the only way to serve God

· Part of religious tradition (Protestant Work Ethic)-Though this is seen as discriminatory against minorities because they can’t just “pull themselves up by their own bootstraps” if they live in an area with few educational opportunities or where they will be discriminated against. Limited multicultural applicability/ anti-women.
 * to provide themselves and their families with status, recognition, affiliation, and similar psychological and sociological products essential for living in our complex world
 * It is assumed that satisfaction derived from work is an important determinant in an individual's total satisfaction (p.18).
 * 2/3 of all workers would seek more information about jobs if they were starting over.

**__ Modern Trends in Work __** · Decentralization-More people working from home, esp. moms with children · Globalization and outsourcing, especially of manufacturing jobs · Minorities will soon be the majority-multi-cultural workplace · Older people continue to work and retire later · Technology getting rid of some jobs, but creating new ones. For example, ATMs got rid of bank tellers, but computers add jobs like software engineers · Social status may change-We can go one of two ways. We can have an elite class of 10% of population that does all the high tech jobs and the rest of us will be poor and doing menial work or we can all be raised up to the new expectations of the new technology. If we do the first social status will change because there will be no classes except the rich versus the poor. With the second option social status will be even more related to one’s job. · Free Trade means more outsourcing of jobs for cheaper labor and production costs. U.S., Canada, and Mexico ratified the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). In Europe they have the European Common Market. __**Terms**__:
 * The U.S. Department of Labor noted in the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills that one of the skills needed by future workers would be the ability to function in a multicultural workplace (p. 19).
 * The search for alternatives in fossil fuel is in full swing and will have a tremendous impact on the nature of the workplace (p. 19).
 * The demand for people who can create nothing out of something will increase dramatically (p. 19).
 * 1) ** Vocation ** : What you are called to do by God
 * 2) **Career choice**: process of selecting a career
 * 3) **Position**: group of tasks performed by an individual
 * 4) **Job**: group of smaller positions in a single business; what you do on a daily basis, what is required of you and workers who are similar to you.
 * 5) **Occupation**: group of similar jobs in several businesses; your specific professional function at any given time.
 * 6) **Career**: series of paid or unpaid occupations of jobs one holds throughout life; the kind of work you do, not tied to a particular location or employment opportunity.
 * 7) **Career Development**: lifelong process involving psychology, sociology, education, economic, physical, and cultural factors (and chance)
 * 8) **Career intervention**: deliberate act aimed at enhancing some aspect of person's career development
 * 9) **Career guidance**: employing strategies to influence career development
 * 10) **Career education**: systematic attempt to influence career development of students and adults through types of education strategies
 * 11) **Career counseling**: service provided to single client or group of clients who need help with career choice or adjustment
 * 12) **Career information**: labor market info about job trends, industries
 * 13) **Career coaching**: used in business and industry to signify managers' efforts to facilitate career development of employees

**- Does the presence or absence of some trait or demand make it more or less likely that there will be success?**
 * Life career development:** an individual's self-development during life span; includes integration of roles, settings, and events in person's life
 * Work:** exertion of effort directed to produce or accomplish something
 * Time perspective:** how individuals "view and orient themselves to time....time imagery related to achievement motivation
 * Time differentiation:** the density and extension of events with in time zones tends to define which time zone is more real for the client
 * Interventions:** "helping people create, articulate, and enact their dreams." (Savickas, p. 10).
 * Time integration:** the sense of connectedness among events across time zones.circumscription- process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based on gender or social class compromise- process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors Vocational Relevance

//Example: Oriented to a single goal// //Example: College student can't decide between two majors//
 * ATTRACTOR TYPES**
 * Point attractor:** a limiting attractor in a complex adaptive identity in which the entity returns repeatedly to the same state as if drawn by a magnet
 * Pendulum attractor:** a limiting attractor in a complex adaptive identity in which the entity moves back and forth between two identifiable states, just as a pendulum moves from side to side
 * Torus attractor:** a limiting attractor in a complex adaptive identity in which the entity moves around, again and again, in a circular pattern
 * Strange attractor:** a limiting attractor in a complex adaptive identity which yields entity shapes that are neither linear nor contained (Bloch, 2005)


 * sensitive dependence:** the potential for small changes to bring about large effects (Bloch, 2005)

Theory: Theories **"conceptual glue" that indicates where, when and for what purpose career counseling, career education,, career guidance, and other career interventions should be implemented**

Krumboltz (1994) prefers to say that theories provide road maps to the career development process. Good theories have distinct characteristics
 * Theory Disciplines:**
 * Differential Psychology -** Focuses on work and occupation
 * Personality Psychology -** Focuses on the uniqueness of people
 * Sociology -** Focuses on social movement, organization, and class
 * Development Psychology -** Focuses on the concept that life is dynamic, and how we change across our lifespan
 * __Chapter 2__**
 * __The purposes and evaluation of theory__**
 * Well-defined terms and constructs, that can be easily be interpreted by practitioners and researchers
 * Are comprehensive in that they explain the career development process for all groups, including men and women, and individuals from various cultures and from all socioeconomic strata.
 * Help us understand why people choose careers but then become dissatisfied with them
 * Allow us to interpret data
 * Help account for all internal and external factors that influence career development
 * Cognition and affective responsive to various career-related events
 * Parsimonious –set forth in the simplest
 * Theories of career choice and development serve 3 functions:**
 * 1) Facilitate understanding of the forces that influence career choice and development
 * 2) Stimulate research that can help clarify career choice as well as the development process
 * 3) Provide a guide to practice in the absence of empirical guidelines

These **three** theories are based on positivist philosophical thinking. Socioeconomic theories focus on the socioeconomic status of the decision maker and/or the influence of sociological and economic factors on occupational choice making.
 * Trait-and-factor theories** stress that individuals need to develop their traits, which include their interests, values, personalities, and aptitudes, as well as select environments that are congruent with them.
 * Developmental theories** are based to some degree on the assumption that the factors that influence career choice and development are related to stages of personal and psychological development.
 * Learning theories** have been used to describe both the process by which the individual develops and the choice-making process itself.
 * Positivist philosophical thinking**
 * Human behaviors can be measured objectively if reliable, valid instruments are utilized.
 * Human behaviors can be studied outside the context in which it occurs.
 * Research processes should be value free
 * Cause and effect relationships occur and can be measured
 * If certain conditions are met, results can be generalized
 * Career counselors should maintain objectivity, use instruments that are reliable and valid ( well-designed empirical research)
 * Postmodern theories**
 * Human behavior is nonlinear and thus cannot be studied objectively
 * Cause and effect relationships cannot be determined
 * Individuals cannot be studied outside the context in which they function.
 * Research data cannot be generalized
 * Research is not a value-free process
 * The stories (narratives) that students tell are legitimate sources of data.
 * Research is goal free
 * Story narratives can help the clients construct career goals with the help of the career counselor.

Trait & Factor **(Parsons, 1900)**
 * Closely related to person-environment theories
 * Individuals should understand their talents and preferences for certain kinds of work
 * Individuals must develop an understanding of what occupations call for their skills and will satisfy their preference
 * Stresses the need for individuals to develop their traits
 * Traits include interests, values, personalities, and aptitudes

Persons w/ Disabilities and trait-factor
 * may not understand skills and abilities or characteristics of occupation (physical/cognitive barriers, lack of opportunities, etc.)
 * vocational assessment and counseling can help people understand themselves and understand the world.

P-E Theory
 * Person (P) has basic needs and values as does the environment (E).**
 * The theory can be used as a "fit" theory as certain characteristics of P would be required to have a good fit with E.**
 * The characteristics usually are values/needs or skills.**
 * Needs can be values or skills.**
 * Congruence - the extent to which a person's P and E match**

Developmental Life-Span, Life Space
 * Major theorists
 * Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma
 * Super
 * Gottfredson
 * this theory is often stated as a "segmented" theory consisting of several related propositions
 * the hope is that an integrated theory ultimately emerges

Social Learning Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) -- Lent, Brown and Hackett (1987)
 * Developed out of Bandura's social cognitive theory
 * Dynamic in nature
 * Addresses issues that may interact with and supersede the effects of career-related choices such as culture, gender, genetic endowment, social context and unexpected life events
 * Focuses on the connection of self-efficacy, outcome expectations and personal goals that influence a person's career choice
 * Individuals develop and refine beliefs regarding career choice through 4 major sources:
 * personal performance accomplishments
 * vicarious learning
 * social persuasion
 * physiological states and reactions
 * Central propositions of theory
 * Interaction between people and their environment is highly dynamic (individuals are influenced by and cause influence on their environments)
 * career related behavior in influenced by four aspects of person including behavior, self efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and goals
 * People become interested in things they believe they can perform well to produce valued outcomes
 * Gender, race, etc. influence self efficacy development
 * Direct influences on career choice include discrimination, economic variables that influence supply and demand, and culture of decision maker. Indirect influence includes chance happenings.
 * Performance is a result of interactions among ability, self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations, and established goals. Self-efficacy belieds and outcome expectations change as individuals interact with the environment.

Postmodern theories
 * ===Phenomenological or constructionist===
 * Key assumptions:
 * human behavior is nonlinear and cannot be studied objectively
 * cannot determine cause and effect relationships
 * human behavior cannot be studied outside of context
 * cannot generalize research data
 * research is not value free - the researcher's values should be considered in the process
 * stories and narratives are sources of data
 * research as goal free
 * career counselors should focus on clients' stories and use qualitative assessment procedures

Constructivist ,
 * Also referred to as Phenomenological theories
 * Constructivist theories, also known as postmodern theories
 * **differ from theories based on positivist philosophy**
 * Human behavior cannot be studied objectively because it is nonlinear
 * Relationships that care cause and effect cannot be determined
 * People must be studied within the context that they function
 * Research data can not be generalized
 * The researcher must not use their own values to guide the research (value-free process)
 * A legitimate source of data comes from the stories of the student
 * Purposeful sampling is used to find people that respond to the research in a purposeful way and find actual effects based on demonstrated needs (goal free)
 * Career counselors help clients come up with career goals by focusing on their stories and using qualitative assessment procedures

Solution-Focused Theory- Steve de Shazer (1985)


 * The sequence of Solution-Focused Brief Career Counseling (SFBCC) is as follows:**
 * (1). the client identifies the problem to be addressed;**
 * (2). the client identifies the changes (goals) to be made and scales the goals;**
 * (3). the client is encouraged to search for exceptions, that is, times when they were able to solve similar problems;**
 * (4). the client identifies personal strengths and strategies used in past successes that can be used to resolve the identified problem;**
 * (5). the counselor and the client revisit the goal, scale it, and develop a plan to resolve or reduce the impact of the problem that was presented; and**
 * (6). the counselor may engage in second-order questioning if the client is "stuck".**


 * Exceptions - times when the problem ceases to occur if only for a moment.**
 * Reframing - using behavioral language to rephrase a word or sentence.**
 * Scales - way of measuring one's successes, used frequently to measure success towards one's process goals**


 * This theory is more of a narrative, focusing on the language of the client. The language that the client allows for the couselor to best assist their client and guide them through the process. Also, the theory allows for clients to create their own goals and solutions to their problems. One way the client tries to achieve their process goals is through divergent thinking, where the client starts out by taking small steps working towards the bigger goal. It is almost like the client tries to achieve short term goals which will ultimately turn into long term goals. The client also has the ability to move at the pace that they are comfortable with. In order for this to theory to work best, the counselor must be willing to give up most of the control and allow the client to find their own path.**

Two Models: Prescriptive and Descriptive ~ __Mitchell's (1975) "career makeover" of Restle's (1961) earlier model__: The decision maker matches the current situation to their view of an ideal situation i.e. real job opportunities versus ideal job; The person chooses the alternative that is closest to the ideal, and according to Mitchell, uses four elements of preference, which can be used in a variety of ways- ~ __Tvesrsky (1972) model of Elimination__: All choices are focused on simultaneously, and factors of the choices are matched to one another (i.e. likelihood of promotion). Those positions that do not meet minimum standards are eliminated.
 * Theories of Decision Making**: (Brown, p. 81)
 * 1970's and 80's Career Development Gurus noticed that no theorist, except Krumboltz, considered HOW individuals make career decisions, so they created approaches to understanding the decision-making process.
 * Main purpose of the theories: to help career counselors understand the career decision-making process
 * //Prescriptive models//- describe how decisions ought to be made.
 * 1) absolute constraints- the factors that must be present/absent for the alternative to be viable.
 * 2) negative characteristics- undesirable aspects of the alternative(s)
 * 3) positive characteristics- desirable aspects of the alternative(s)
 * 4) neutral characteristics- factors that are present, but are irrelevant to the choice to be made.

~ __Vroom's (1964) expectancy model__: The pressure to make a particular choice is dependent on all of the valences, aka preferences, for an occupation or position, and how strong the person expects that the choice will result in desired outcomes. ~ __Janis and Mann's (1977) conflict model:__ This model assumes that whenever a person has to make a decision, they experience conflict, and therefore they also experience stress and uncertainty. The person asks themselves a series of questions, whose answers can lead to action or interruption in the decision-making process. The questions: If the person answers "yes" to the last question, they are considered to be in a place where they can acquire relevant information for making the decision, and in good standing for making a good decision.
 * //Descriptive models//- describe how decisions are actually made.
 * 1) //Are risks involved if I do not change?//
 * 2) //Are the risks serious if I do not change?//
 * 3) //Can I hope to find a viable solution to the problem?//
 * 4) //Is there sufficient time to search for viable alternatives?//

Major Theorists: __**Don Super**__
 * Life-Career Rainbow: 1. Child, 2. Student, 3. Worker, 4. Spouse, 5. Parent, 6. Homemaker, 7. Citizen, 8. Leisurite, 9. Annuitant
 * people differ in abilities, needs, personalities, etc.
 * people are qualified for a number of occupations by virtue of their characteristics
 * each occupation requires a characteristic pattern of abilities and personality traits
 * vocational preference and competence change with time and experience
 * self-concepts are increasingly stable beginning in late adolescence
 * process of change is a series of life stages
 * the nature of career pattern is determined by a number of factors including parental socioeconomic level, mental ability, education, skills, personality, and opportunity
 * success in coping with environmental demands depends on career maturity (a hypothetical construct)
 * life stage development can be guided partly by the maturing of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and development of self-concepts
 * career development is developing and implementing occupational self-concepts
 * several factors influence the process of compromise between individual and social factors (values, interests, etc.)
 * work satisfaction is proportional to the degree to which the person has been able to implement self-concepts
 * work and occupation provide a focus for personality organization
 * life stages include: Growth, Exploratory, Establishment, Maintenance and Decline. These stages can be re-entered by an individual. They do not have to go through these stages in order.
 * Growth(birth - 12 years) - physical and psychological growth, experiences provide background knowledge
 * Exploratory(12-18 years)- Realizing occupation is part of life, fantasy phase is unrealistic.
 * Establishment- encounters with actual work, try out decisions and choices made in the second stage.
 * Maintenance- continue or improve the current occupational situation.
 * Decline- preretirement.
 * Can have two types of cycles
 * Maxi Cycle - the big cycle, the overwhelming cycle
 * Mini Cycle - the cycle between cycle transitions, spin offs when something happens in life.
 * Important Concepts from Super
 * Role-Salience- The relative importance one places on a particular role in one's life leads to life structure.
 * Personal Construct- An extended definition of "self-concept" which includes not only an internalized personal view of self but also the individual's view of the situation or condition in which he or she lives.
 * Career Maturity- An individual's readiness to cope with the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted because of society's expectations of people who have reached that stage of development.

__**John Holland**__
 * 6 personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, enterprising, social, conventional, commonly abbreviated with the acronym RIASEC (we all possess traits from each type)
 * Realistic - objective, concrete, physically manipulative in how they deal with the environment; prefer jobs that are agricultural, technical, engineering
 * Investigative - use intellect in dealing with environment; prefer careers in science and math
 * Artistic - create art forms to deal with environment; prefer careers in music, literature, drama, and art
 * Social - use skills to relate and interact with others to deal with environment; career preferences tend to be educational, therapeutic, and religious
 * Enterprising - adventurous, dominant, enthusiastic and impulsive in dealing with environment; prefer careers that involve leadership or supervisory roles
 * Conventional - choose goals and activities based on social approval; prefer careers in business that involve clerical and computational tasks
 * Each personality type consists of relatively distinct characteristics
 * There are no "pure types"
 * personality develops as a result of interaction of inherited characteristics, activities individuals is exposed to, interests/competencies that grow out of the activities.
 * theory used to understand personality, identify tasks that individuals will enjoy and perform well, and is often used in career counseling
 * also uses the types to describe six work environments, which are sought by individuals with similar personality types
 * To maximize job satisfaction and achievements, one should select a career enviroment that is congruent with their personality
 * developed an occupational classification system


 * __Key Terms__**
 * **Differentiation -** The degree to which a person or environment resembles some of the RIASEC types and not others. High differentiation affects the ease in making vocational choices.
 * **Consistency**- the internal coherence within the RIASEC hexagon
 * Proximity on the hexagon is related to higher consistency
 * e.g. Conventional is more consistent with Realistic but not consistent with Artistic (opposite on the hexagon)
 * **Identity -** a person's clarity of goals, interests, and talents or the degree to which an environment has a clear picture of its goals, tasks and rewards.
 * **Congruence -**How well an individual's personality type and environment type fit. High congruence is said to predict job satisfaction and performance
 * Holland used a hexagon model to describe the overlap or internal coherence/consistency of an individual's or environment's type scores

Assumption of Holland's Theory (p. 34)
 * 1) individual's personality is the primary factor in vocational choice
 * 2) Interest inventories are personality inventories
 * 3) Individuals develop stereotypical views of occupations that have psychological relevance and play a major role in occupational choice
 * 4) Daydreaming about occupation are often precursors to occupation choices.
 * 5) Identity (the clarity of an individuals perceptions of his or her goals and personal characteristics) is related to having a small number of focused career goals.
 * 6) To be successful and satisfied in a career, it is necessary to choose one that is congruent with one's personality. Others in the work environment should have the same or similar characteristics.

In Class Case Study Application 1. 17 year old female high school student in co-op; interested in construction, drafting, working with her hands etc. 2. Father trying to discourage student from pursuing career in construction; mom and sister both stay-at-home parents 3. Class consensus on realistic and possibly artistic but no consensus on third


 * Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA)**
 * Explains why people stay employed in a particular job (a theory of vocational adjustment)
 * The internal drives of the worker
 * The external demands of the worker
 * Two main factors: the Worker and the Work Environment
 * The worker
 * expects and needs certain rewards from the work environment
 * Intrinsic rewards: enjoyment, pleasant conditions
 * Extrinsic rewards: money, prestige, power
 * The Work Environment
 * demands certain things of the worker
 * Competence
 * Quality
 * Attitudes/Behavior
 * Satisfaction from each factors usually results in Tenure.
 * The results of satisfaction being met by both factors are independence, good quality of life, and rehabilitation success. A counselor must understand the need of both the worker and the work environment when counseling a client.
 * People have two types of needs: biological (survival) needs and work environments have "requirements that are analogous to the needs of individuals" p. 38 of textbook
 * Biological needs include food and psychological needs like social acceptance
 * Work environment: workers select jobs because of their perception that the job will satisfy their needs and that their skills will meet the needs of the workplace
 * Satisfaction results when intrinsic/extrinsic needs of individual are met and work environment demands are met
 * Skills, aptitudes and personality structure can be used to predict the success of the worker
 * When an occupation matches an individuals personality type, Dawis uses the term correspondence (similar to Holland's term congruence)
 * How values develop**
 * Enculturation is the process by which individuals incorporate the beliefs and values of their cultural group and from a value system
 * Most individuals are monocultural
 * Acculturation involves the enculturation beliefs from a culture different from one’s own.

__**Duane** **Brown**__

Brown built on the work of Rokeach (1973), Super (1953, 1990), Beck (1976) and others to formulate a more holistic model of career and life-role choice making. Of the PEC theorists, Brown is the only one to consider contextual variables, such as socioeconomic status, family or group influence, discrimination, gender and aptitudes. Brown is also the first "trait-and-factor" theorist to recognize the importance of the collective social and other non-European values.

//__Values__// are the major force in the goal-setting process. However, five factors may lead individuals to lower their expectations of success if they act on their values: 1) mental health problems, 2) history of personal/cultural group discrimination, 3) lack of information, 4) poverty, and 5) self-efficacy.

(from Chapter 3, p. 59-65)
 * __Propositions of Brown’s Values-Based Theory__ (Brown, 1996)**
 * 1) Highly prioritized work values are the most important determinant of career choice from people who value individualism.
 * 2) Individuals who hold collective social values and come from families who hold the same values defer to the wishes of the family in occupational decision-making.
 * 3) When taken individually, cultural values regarding activity do not constrain the occupational decision- making process.
 * 4) Males, females, and people from differing cultural groups enter occupations at varying rates.
 * 5) The process of choosing an occupation value involves a series of estimates.
 * 6) Occupational success is related to job-related skills acquired in formal and informal educational settings, job-related aptitudes and skills, SES, preparation in the work role, and the extent to which discrimination is experienced.
 * 7) Occupational tenure is partially the result of the match between the cultural and work values of worker, supervisors, and colleagues.

__**Brown's Updated** **Values-Based Multicultural Career Counseling**__ **(Brown, 2002)** (from Chapter 8, p. 145-155)

Step 1= Assessing Cultural Variables Step 2= Communication Style and Establishing the Relationship Step 3= Selecting a Decision-Making Model Step 4= The Identification of Career Issues (Assessment) Step 5 and 6= The Establishment of Culturally Appropriate Goals and Selection of Culturally Appropriate Interventions Step 7= The Implementation and Evaluation of the Interventions Used Step 8= Advocacy
 * Values are cognized representations of needs that, when developed, provide standards for behavior.
 * Values are major factors in motivation because they form the basis for attributing worth to situations and objects.
 * Values can influence importance and clarity of goal if they are crystallized and prioritized.
 * Values development can be faulty with a result that the person has a distorted view of normative standards and modes of interaction within roles and the broader community.
 * For a job to be satisfying, individuals must engage in activities that they believe are worthwhile.
 * Life Values Inventory
 * Developed the Information System for Vocational Decision (ISVD).
 * Current desktop programs are descendants of programs created like the ISVD.
 * Tiedman and Miller-Tiedman publish "Career Decision Making: An Individualistic Perspective," which is one of the early attempts at framing a theory based on constructivist philosophy
 * Believed that early childhood environments created different personality types and characteristics that would eventually evolve into a career selection
 * Lost momentum when researches were unable to test her propositions to be true or accurate.
 * Personality theory style to career development
 * theory focuses on how people develop their career goals; based on 4 basic assumptions:
 * 1) career development process begins in childhood
 * 2) career objectives are attempts to apply one's self-concept
 * 3) career satisfaction is dependent on the degree to which the career is congruent with self-perceptions
 * 4) people develop occupational stereotypes that influence their career selection process
 * men and women tend to differ in their occupational aspirations
 * offers a developmental, sociological perspective of career development
 * main focus on career development as it relates to the types of compromises that people make
 * Circumscription - Stages of Development:
 * 1) (Age 3-5) orientation to size and power
 * 2) (Age 6-8) orientation to sex roles
 * 3) (Age 9-13) orientation to social valuation (i.e. awareness of social class, development of preferences for level of work, differences in preferences by ability level and social class
 * 4) (Age 14+) orientation to the internal, unique self (i.e. perception of self and others)
 * proposes a hierarchical level of choice related to distance from self-concept - people will give up their interest in a particular field of work in order to maintain sextype and prestige and if necessary sacrifice prestige level for sextype
 * people develop cognitive maps of occupations that are organized along the following dimensions:
 * masculinity/femininity of the occupation
 * prestige of the occupation
 * fields of work
 * Two suggested uses:
 * designing career development programs that break down sex-role stereotypes and the limitations in occupational choice based on social status
 * assessing developmental problems


 * A learning theory derived from Albert Bandura. It combines reinforcement theory, behaviorism and cognitive information processing.
 * Mentions that people's personalities and behaviors can be explained by the things that have happened to them (role of innate/developmental processes)
 * Focuses on instrumental and associative learning experiences (terms defined below)
 * Two types of learning experiences
 * Instrumental - the individual acts on the environment
 * Associative - the individual watches someone else do the task (external stimuli)
 * Self Efficacy Theory
 * Efficacy expectations - your skill sets (What do we think we can do/expect of ourselves?)
 * Outcome expectations (What do we expect to have happen?)
 * (Using these two parts together is how we chose a career for ourselves.)


 * Divided into two parts
 * __Social Learning Theory of Career Decision Making (SLTCDM)__
 * Designed to address the //WHY// behind decisions people make to enter, change, or express interest in occupations
 * Influenced by genetic endowment/special abilities, the environment, learning experiences, and Task Approach skills (work habits, performance standards)
 * From these things, people develop self-observation generalizations (comparing self to those around you) and world-view generalizations (recognizing modern global trends and how one fits in)
 * __Learning Theory of Career Counseling__
 * Geared toward helping counselors know what to do to help

The overall goal of this theory is to help facilitate
 * **Four trends developed:**
 * **People need to expand their capabilities and interests rather than basing things solely on existing characteristics**
 * **People need to prep for changing work tasks and cannot assume their occupation will remain stable**
 * **People need to be encouraged to take action in their own lives**
 * **Counselors need to actually help with problems people are having and not just help them find the right occupation**

People will prefer an occupation if they have succeeded at tasks they believe are similar to tasks performed by members of this occupation
 * Four factors that influence career decisions:
 * Genetic endowment and special abilities
 * Environmental conditions and events
 * Learning Experiences
 * Task Approach skills - work habits, mental sets, perceptual and thought processes, etc.
 * Three types of consequences from continuous interaction with learning experiences:
 * Self-observation generalization - overt or covert self-statement evaluating one's own actual or vicarious performance in relation to learned standards
 * Task approach skills - efforts by the person to project self-observation generalizations into the future to make predictions
 * Actions - implementations of behavior (ex. applying for a job)


 * Vocational choice is influenced by 4 factors:
 * reality factor
 * influence of the educational process
 * emotional factor
 * individual values
 * 3 stages of career development
 * fantasy (Birth -11 years)
 * tentative (11 years - 17 years)
 * realistic (17 years to early 20s)(mid-adolescence through young adulthood) has 3 substages
 * exploration - individual begins to restrict choices based on personal likes, skills and abilities
 * crystallization - individual makes an occupational choice
 * specification - individual pursues the educational experiences required to achieve the career goal
 * Gender, race and social class can play a part in opening or closing doors of occupational choice


 * Believes that career development must have a future time orientation. People are more satisfied in their careers when the look ahead and anticipate what the future may hold.
 * Developed a career exploration course in an attempt to develop the following attitudes and concepts:
 * Become Involved Now
 * Explore your future
 * Choose based on how things look to you
 * Control your future
 * Work: Problem or Opportunity?
 * View work positively
 * Conceptualize Career choice
 * Clear up Career Misconceptions
 * Base choice on yourself
 * Use 4 aspects of self as choice bases


 * - Career counseling from the narrative approach emphasizes understanding and articulating the main character to be lived out in a specific career plot.**
 * - This articulation uses the process of composing a narrative as the primary vehicle for defining character and plot.**
 * - Howard (1989) noted that people tell stories that infuse parts of their lives with great meaning and de-emphasize other parts.**
 * A narrative is a temporal organization with a beginning, middle, and end.**
 * - A story is a synthetic structure that organizes many pieces into a whole.**
 * - The plot of a narrative specifies what has been accomplished.**
 * - The structure of a narrative communicates a problem, attempts at resolving it, and a resolution.**
 * - It is aimed towards problem solving - finding exceptions to these events.**
 * Elaborate a career problem**
 * - Compose a life history**
 * - Build a future narrative**
 * - Construct reality**
 * - Change a life structure**
 * - Enact a role**
 * - Crystallize a decision**

7 Ways to connect to spirit and work: 1. Change: Being open to change in yourself and the world around you. 2. Balance: Achieving balance among the activities of your life such as work, leisure, learning, and family relationships as well as balance between the old and new. 3. Energy: Feeling that you always have enough energy to do what you want to do. 4. Community: Working as a member of a team or community of workers. 5. Calling: Believing that one is called to the work one does by a particular mix of talents, interests, and values. 6. Harmony: Working in a setting that harmonizes with one's talents, interests, and values. 7. Unity: Believing that the work one does has a purpose beyond learning money and in some way serves others.

The idea behind it is that people can see what they are contributing to the world through their spirituality. When you see your career as spiritual, it adds an ethical dimension and a dimension of love to work. Believes that "everything in the world is connected and nonpredictable" (Brown, 2007).Characteristics of adaptive entities:1.) Adaptive entities have the ability to maintain themselves even though their shapes and components may change. 2.) They are open systems, taking energy from the environment and exporting energy in return.3.) They are parts of networks, engaging in the interchange of resources. These networks can be depicted as ever-widening, linked concentric circles. 4.) They are parts of other entities. These parts are fractals. 5.) They are dynamic and thus ever changing. In this process of changing forms and components, they move between order and chaos.6.) They go through transitions and during these periods seek fitness peaks that maximize their chances of survival. 7.) They behave in nonlinear ways because of multiple and unexplainable events.8.) They react so that small changes bring about large effects. 9.) They move through transitions. They may return repeatedly to the same state, swing from point to point in pendulum fashion, or move in circular, but nonconcentric, patterns. 10.) Fractals may, as they move through transitions, create new fractals. 11.) Fractals exists only as a part of the nested reality of the universe; they are interdependent. Spirituality is experiencing this unity with the universe. __G.W. Peterson__
 * Characteristics of the adaptive entity of careers:**
 * 1. Autopiesis or self-regeneration -- people reinvent their careers**
 * 2. Open exchange -- careers do not take place for the individual alone, careers require participation in the outside world**
 * 3. Participation in networks -- careers are a part of the surrounding networks of education, occupations, industries, particular employers, needs of the community, local/global economies, and cultures**
 * 4. Fractals -- the career of any person is a fractal of that person's entire life experience**
 * 5. Phase transitions between order and chaos -- individuals are thrown into change, from order to chaos**
 * 6. Search for fitness peaks -- career is characterized by the search for the best than an individual can imagine for self**
 * 7. Nonlinear dynamics -- an individual's career development is a series of choices that have internal meaning for that individual and can only be understood in terms of that individual**
 * 8. Sensitive dependence, or the potential for small changes to bring about large effects -- random, often small, events may lead to major career shifts**
 * 9. Attractors that limit growth -- some careers appear to be formed by point attractors. Individuals with point attractor careers see only one occupation as possible, and may also only see one route into that occupation**
 * 10. Role of strange attractors and emergence -- strange attractors allow careers to take new shapes and emerge in forms quite varied from those seen earlier. "Planned happenstance"**
 * 11. Spirituality -- adaptive entities exist only as part of nested inseparability or connectedness; there are no living systems without interdependence**
 * career information processing model is based in learning theory that focuses on information processing
 * 4 phases
 * communication - begins with a signal from inside or outside organism that a problem exists
 * aspects - individuals try to determine the aspects of the problem
 * synthesis - individuals generate potential solutions and then identify realistic options
 * valuing - a costs-benefits analysis is conducted based on the values system of the individual
 * execution - plans are developed and executed to act on the alternatives chosen
 * Thinking about decision making, knowing how you make decisions, knowing about self, and knowing about options are involved in career choice according to the CIP Model
 * assesses the readiness of individuals to make well-reasoned career choices and their cognitive and affective capabilities to make those choices
 * Factors used to assess readiness
 * high level of self-knowledge and willingness to use that knowledge in the decision making process
 * willingness to explore the world of work
 * motivation to learn about and engage in decision making process
 * awareness of how negative thoughts influence problem solving and willingness to seek assistance when necessary
 * Complexity factors such as family variables, employing organizations, society at large and economic variables may influence career choice
 * 7 steps of career counseling
 * initial interview - clarifies client's needs
 * preliminary assessment - readiness is determined
 * mutually define the problem and analyze causes
 * formulate goals
 * develop individual learning plan - consider resources to help client meet goals
 * implement individual learning plan
 * goal attainment evaluation - assess client's ability to use skills/knowledge for future decision making
 * Model applies primarily to those who intend to make their own decisions
 * Clients must report their thoughts. May not be appropriate for use with certain populations who would be uncomfortable with this.

Family of Theory:


 * Focus on individuals developing traits (including values, personalities, and aptitudes) and then pick environment that is congruent with them
 * Individuals must develop an understanding of what occupations call for their skills and will satisfy their preferences
 * Big Name: Holland
 * Focus on stages of development (e.g. childhood or adolescence)
 * Focus on biological, psychological, sociological, and cultural factors that influence career choice, adjustments to and changes/withdrawal in careers
 * Big Names: Super and Gottfredson
 * Focus on the learning processes that lead to the acquisition of the beliefs and behaviors critical to the career development process
 * Learning theorist believe factors surrounding career choice and adjustment are learned
 * Big Name: Krumboltz
 * Social cognitive career theory (SCCT)
 * based on sociocognitive theory of Bandura and parallels Krumboltz's theory in some ways
 * Career information-processing model (CIP
 * people develop two types of knowledge: self-knowledge and knowledge about careers
 * CASVE: communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, and execution
 * Focus on small and large group behavior
 * Purpose is to help increase understanding of sociological and economic factors on career choice and development

Status Attainment Theory:
 * Family status and cognitive variables combine through social-psychological processes to influence educational attainment, which in turn impacts occupational attainment and earnings

Dual Labor Market Theory:
 * There are two types of businesses in our labor market: core and peripheral
 * Core firms have internal labor markets that have well-developed career paths and offer opportunities for upward mobility
 * Peripheral firms make no long-term commitments and have little chance of upward mobility

Race, Gender and Career
 * African Americans earn less than whites
 * Females earn less than males

__Postmodern__
 * - humanistic, holistic**
 * - nonlinear realities**
 * - viable worldviews**
 * - holistic thinking**
 * - contextual elements**
 * - subjective**
 * - internal reality**


 * Contextualist Theory
 * grounded in constructivism vs. positivism
 * Young et al: only way to understand individuals is in the context of their environments //as they experience them and make sense or meaning of the experiences//
 * actions of individuals //not// caused by past or present events
 * career-related behaviors are //goal-directed results// of the individual's constructivist view
 * unobservable bx: internal processes and the individual's experiencial interpretation
 * joint actions: occur between people; joint goals; players engage in social actions of social and personal meaning;
 * projects: longer-term joint or individual actions (preparing for a career)


 * Chaos Theory
 * logical positivist
 * everything in the world is connected and nonpredictable
 * fractals
 * 11 principles in her theory of career development
 * (1) Complex adaptive entities; have the ability to maintain themselves, although their components and even their shapes may change; They have life in this sense.
 * (2)Entities are open, that is, they maintain themselves through the ongoing flow and interchange of components of energy.
 * (3) In these changes, entities are part of networks. Any entity is part of many networks, which can be depicted not only as concentric circles but as ever-widening links to nodes beyond the entity itself.
 * (4) Entities are parts or fractals of other entities . Each fractal has the entirety of the organism within its shape. Ultimately, every organism may be seen as a fractal of the universe.
 * (5) Entities are dynamic, In the constant exchange of forms, components, and energy, they move between order and chaos.
 * (6) During phase transitions, entities seek fitness peaks, that is, the point that will yield the greatest chance of survival.
 * (7) Phase transitions are best explained by nonlinear dynamics. In linear dynamics, there is an expectation that changes of equal sizes will produce equal effects. Complex entities, however, behave in nonlinear ways. Because the transition between order and chaos are drawing multiple causes from multiple network relationships.
 * (8) Small changes brings about large effects. Within the nonrecurring, nonlinear patterns, small changes may be seen to bring about large effects.
 * (9) As the entity moves through its transition, it may retain its life and shape in response to several types of attractors that limit its movement and growth.
 * (10) It may retain life through the creation of new forms, a quality known as emergence.
 * (11) Complex adaptive entities exist only as pat of nested inseparability or connectedness; There are no living systems without interdependence.
 * people are continuously regenerating their careers, and moving freely among career pathways
 * careers make sense only if examined using nonlinear logic
 * shifting in careers can only be understood from the individual’s perspective

Significant Terms:
 * = the kind of work you do; is not tied to a particular location or a particular employment opportunity**
 * Sear's definition of career (used in Brown book) -- one's career is a series of paid or unpaid occupations or jobs that one holds throughout a life time**
 * -- (used in Brown book) -- is a lifelong process involving psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors, as well as chance factors that interact to influence the career of an individual. Yet Brown also added __//culture//__ to Sear's list of factors that influence career development.**
 * = your specific professional function at a given time**
 * = what you do on a day-to-day basis; what is required of you in your position**
 * = does the presence or absence of a specific trait make it more or less likely that the individual will be successfully able to get and keep a job**
 * -- some career counselors use this word synonymously with job or occupation**
 * -- some counselors reject the word "vocation" because it is associated with the idea that people are "called" to their occupation. These counselors use the term "career choice" for the process of selecting a career**
 * -- some counselors will use this term synonymously with career choice**
 * -- a deliberate act aimed at enhancing some aspect of a person's career development, including influencing the career decision-making process**
 * -- career guidance, career development programs, career education, career counseling, career information, and career coaching**
 * -- a broad construct that traditionally includes all career development interventions**
 * -- term coined in the 1970s; a systematic attempt to influence the career development of students and adults with educational strategies**
 * -- term that is replacing "career education" and "career guidance"**
 * -- service provided to a single client or groups of clients who seek assistance with career choice or career adjustment problems**
 * -- labor market information**
 * -- used in business to describe managers' efforts to facilitate the career development of employees. It helps employees identify opportunities that exist within their work settings and prepares them to enter new positions**

Publications for career/vocational development //Journal of Vocational Behavior// //Career Development Quarterly//
 * Congruence = match between a person and a person's environment; high congruence is associated with long-term job satisfaction and tenure
 * Differentiation = the degree of definition of an individual's interests, interests are well differentiated when there is a clear distinction between likes and dislikes
 * Consistency = reflection of the internal coherence of an individual's interest in terms of the hexagonal arrangement
 * Identity = provides an estimate of the clarity and stability of a person's identity of their goals, interests and talents

__Super's Life-Span, Life-Space Theory Terms:__


 * Crystallization = a stage that occurs between the ages of 14 and 18(post pubescent), during which people develop overall self-concepts and occupational self-concepts that determine the general direction of their future careers. An important pre-cursor to our development.
 * Specification = a stage that occurs between the ages of 18 and 21, during which people’s broad occupational goals are more narrowly focused toward their eventual life work.
 * Implementation - a stage that occurs between the ages of 21 and 24, during which workers take steps to learn and enter a trade.
 * Stabilization = a stage that occurs between the ages of 25-35, during which workers attempt to demonstrate mastery of their trades. “Niche-picking”
 * Consolidation = occurs between 35-retirement, during which workers seek the professional recognition and security commensurate with their ability and seniority.
 * Role-Salience = the relative importance that one places on a particular role in one's life
 * Personal Construct = an extended definition of "self-concept" which includes not only an internalized personal view of self but also the individual's view of the situation or condition in which he or she exists
 * Career Maturity = a person's readiness to cope with the developmental tasks with which he or she is confronted because of society's expectations of people who have reached that stage of development
 * Gottfredson's Theory of Circumscription and Compromise**

Four basic assumptions
 * Circumscription = the process of eliminating unacceptable occupational alternatives based primarily on gender and social class**
 * The career development process begins in childhood
 * Career aspirations are attempts to implement one’s self-concept
 * Career satisfaction depends on the degree to which the career is congruent with self-perceptions
 * People develop occupational stereotypes that guide them in the selection process.

Choosing a career is to establish a social identity based on choice
 * Stages of Development
 * Stage 1 (ages 3-5) Orientation to size and power-children lay the groundwork for later sex role stereotypes as they observe play activities, orient themselves to same sex adults, and learn about adult activities, such as occupations (p.51).
 * Stage 2 (ages 6-8) Orientation to sex roles- Children begin to develop perceptions of what is "acceptable" for men and women (p. 51).
 * Stage 3 (ages 9-13) Orientation to social valuation- Children begin to recognize the symbols of social status and begin to develop ideas about their abilities, and using these perceptions, along with those associated to social class and sex typing, they begin to develop tolerable boundaries of acceptable occupations. By the end of this period, numerous occupations will be eliminated as the circumscription process continues. Once eliminated, an occupation is unlikely to be considered without intervention (p. 51).
 * Stage 4 (ages 14+) Orientation to internal, unique self- Occupational choices are explored but are limited to those jobs within the tolerable boundaries that have been constructed. Adolescents reject occupational options perceived as being too difficult, either because of their perceptions of their abilities or accessibility (p. 51).


 * Compromise = the process of modifying career choices due to limiting factors, such as availability of jobs
 * Celerity = the quickness with which workers engage their environment to satisfy their needs
 * Pace = the vigor with which individual and work environment try to satisfy their needs
 * Endurance = the tolerance of the individual or the work environment for dealing with unsatisfactory work conditions or workers
 * Rhythm = the pattern of attempts (e.g. steady, erratic, etc.) by individual and work environment to satisfy their needs
 * Correspondence = when an individual selects an occupation that matches his or her personality type (Holland’s concept of congruence)
 * __ Time Perspective __ - how individuals “view and orient themselves to time...time imagery related to achievement motivation” (Savickas, 1990, p. 5)
 * Future-oriented is the goal, rather than past-reflective. However, future-oriented usually comes with more anxiety of the what-ifs, etc.
 * Where you are pointing your flashlight
 * __ Time Differentiation __ - the density and extension of events within time zones tends to define which time zone is more real for the client
 * Interventions: “helping people create, articulate, and enact their dreams” (Savickas, p. 10)
 * How far the light beams point into the future. Counselor may need to orient the beams into the future.
 * __ Time Integration __ - the sense of connectedness among events across time zones
 * Interventions: attention to planning attitudes, competencies, contingency planning, purposeful actions

Assessment/Measures:


 * Holland Code - RIASEC
 * Strong Interest Inventory (SII) (Hansen & Campbell, 1985)
 * Career Assessment Inventory (CAI) (Andberg & Johansson, 1987)
 * Exploring Career Options (ECO) (Johansson, 1982)
 * Super's Career Development Inventory (CDI) Profile
 * Adult Career Concerns Inventory
 * Work Values Inventory
 * Salience Inventory
 * Life Career Rainbow
 * Career Thoughts Inventory (CTI) for decision-making problems (Brown, p. 72)
 * Life Values Inventory (Brown, p. 97)
 * Gottfredson's Monograph
 * General Aptitude Test Battery (GATB); Theory of Work Adjustment (Brown, p. 41) - can be used to measure aptitudes
 * Minnesota Importance Questionnaire (MIQ); Theory of Work Adjustment (Brown, p. 41) - used to measure need preferences
 * Minnesota Occupational Classification System (Brown, p. 41)
 * Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Brown, p. 40) - used to measure satisfaction
 * Minnesota Satisfactoriness Scale (Brown, p. 40) - used to measure satisfactoriness
 * Occupational Reinforcer Patterns (Brown, p. 40) - inventory used to measure preferences for patterns of reinforcers

[MORE GENERAL TESTS LISTED ON PAGE 38 OF BROWN] Usage:
 * to understand personality
 * to understand tasks and activities that individuals will enjoy and perform well

__** According to Krumboltz: Career counseling should proceed with 4 thoughts in mind: **__

**a.** Clients should prepare to expand their knowledge and skills instead of relying on their status when they enter the counseling process. Career counselors should help clients map their current status and outline a plan for change and growth. By planning to change clients expand their opportunity structures.

**b.** Clients need to prepare for an occupational landscape that is ever changing. **c.** Although diagnosing the client’s current career development problem is a step in the career counseling process, it is not sufficient. Clients need to be empowered to cope with the stressors of a changing world. **d.** Career counselors need to focus more broadly and help their clients tackle the array of job-related problems confronting them. Clients need to understand their values and, thus, the things that satisfy them. They need to seize control of their lives, to be able to deal with problems in the workplace, including how to advance in the workplace and plan for retirement.

Krumboltz sees the individual as constantly encountering learning experiences, each of which is followed by rewards or punishments that in turn produce the uniqueness of the individual.

This continuous interaction with learning experiences produces 3 types of consequences:

1. **Self-observation generalization** – an overt or covert self-statement that evaluates one’s own actual or vicarious performance in relation to learned standards. 2. **Task – approach skills** – are thought to be efforts by the person to project into the future self-observation generalizations to make predictions about future events. They include: work habits, mental sets, perceptual and thought processes, performance standards and values, and the like. 3. **Actions** – implementations of behavior, such as applying for a job or changing a major field of study. The behavior produces certain consequences that affect future behavior.

In Summary, an individual is born into the world with certain genetic characteristics, race, gender, physique, and special abilities or disabilities. As time passes, the individual encounters environmental, economic, social, and cultural events and conditions. The individual learns from these encounters, building self-observations and task approach skills that are applied to new events and encounters. The successes and failures that accrue in these encounters influence the individual in choosing courses of action in subsequent learning experiences, increasing the likelihood of making choices similar to previous ones that led to success and of avoiding choices similar to those led to failure. This process is complicated by aspects of instability because the individual changes as a result of the continuous series of learning experiences, and the situation also changes because environmental, cultural, and social conditions are dynamic. **(Brown, Chapter 3, pg. 67).**

Krumboltz (1994) Testable Hypotheses People will prefer an occupation if:
 * They have succeeded at tasks they believe are like tasks performed by members of that occupation.
 * They have observed a valued model being reinforced for activities like those performed by members of that occupations.
 * A valued friend or relative stressed its advantages to them and/or they observed positive words and images being associated with it.
 * Decision making begins with an analysis of values and abilities (MIQ), then analysis of the ability patterns (GATB) and value patterns of several occupations
 * Individuals will compare each occupation to the extent at which they can perform the job satisfactorily and the occupation will satisfy their needs
 * Make predictions about the celerity, pace, endurance and rhythm of the worker and work environment
 * Consider whether a person takes an active (ability to make the work environment more responsive to the workers needs) or reactive approach
 * Counselors can assist individuals to compare their occupational ability patterns, needs, and values to values in the Minnesota Occupational Classification System
 * Counseling and teaching individuals enables greater work satisfaction
 * Increased exposure to this information and assessment providers greater opportunity for the individual
 * Exposure to more environments leads to increased opportunity
 * Environments should also be more mindful of their needs and values
 * Career counselors should understand and stress that Math, Reading, and Writing are important.
 * The objective in career counseling is the development of career maturity, which can be assessed using the CDI
 * Career Planning, Career Exploration, Decision Making, World-of-Work Information, Knowledge of Preferred Occupations, Career Orientation
 * Can use the CMI to measure readiness to make a career decision and amount of knowledge needed to make decision
 * CDI and CMI can be used to teach clients the decision making process - stimulate an independent decision-making style
 * After development of career maturity, help clients development and implement an occupational self-conc
 * children relate to the workers they see -- especially with mothers' occupation
 * occupational ideas may form early in life
 * parent's expectations/support are key factors that influence college goals
 * for elementary school students
 * use a career family tree -- actually looks like a tree
 * visual look of tree is appealing at this age
 * only 3 generations are represented -- makes it simple
 * can be done individually, in small groups, or in larger classroom guidance lesson
 * tree should be completed at home with family -- begins career discussions between child and parents
 * career tree benefits for this age -- communication with family members, teaches self-assessment and interview techniques
 * for middle school students
 * goal at this age is for students to understand information about themselves and work options
 * students can update their career family tree, if done in elementary school
 * students are encouraged to process information -- what was learned about careers, have changes in career tree impacted student's academic or career interests
 * if career family tree not done earlier then student can make one now, or make a career genogram
 * career genogram has squares and circles to represent people -- similar to what we did
 * questions for family members include type of job, hobbies, education and reasons for choosing career
 * genograms help students understand that their career preferences are related to their family's values, interests, and opportunities
 * for high school students
 * main purpose at this age is: examine themes or patterns within the family that impacted family decisions about career and education
 * explore how those themes/patterns are influencing the student's current decisions about careers and education, and are those decisions appropriate for them
 * special concerns with genograms in schools
 * requires a lot of time, more in elementary age than high school
 * children from blended families, same-sex parents, foster families and adopted families may be hesitant to participate


 * Bronfenbrenner continues to talk about other types of systems that are at work in a person's life, such as the macrosystem. This system is someone's overall culture. For example, one could say they are a part of the American culture, but also part of a more local culture, such as the germanic culture of Lancaster County. Bronfenbrenner also discusses the idea of the exosystem, which is outside forces that influence one's self or microsystem. For example, the police have nothing to do with your life directly, but can influence your life if you get a speeding ticket. Another aspect of Bronfenbrenner's theory is the mesosystem. This concept involves how the various parts of a person's microsystem interact with each other (Santrock, 2009, p. 29). Our clients need to know how the fractals (those various groups they are a part of) interconnect with each other. They need to see these connections as fluid and without boundaries

Spirituality (2005, p.196). All human beings are connected within the Universe. Think about how many people you know. Nowadays everyone has connections through websites like Facebook or Linked In. We have the ability to connect with other people like never before due to technological advances. This means we are in touch with tons of potential job contacts. These are people who may know of a job opening or may know of someone else who has a job opening. They could also be people that provide ideas for other careers of which the client has never thought. //Sensitive dependence// (Bloch, 2005, p.200). Bloch, D. (2005). Complexity, Chaos, and Nonlinear Dynamics: A New Perspective on Career Development Theory. //The Career Development Quarterly//, 53, 194-207. Retrieved from [] Santrock, John W. Life-Span Development 12th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2009. (ISBN: 978-0-07-337021-7)**
 * Sometimes a chance encounter with someone can result in a brand new fulfilling career. That small conversation that seems irrelevant at the time can bring about big changes. This is called the
 * Deborah Bloch also talks about three types of
 * in her article (2005, p.198). My understanding of this concept is that these are people or things that suck a client away from their goal of career fulfillment. Like a magnet attracts, they are "stuck" to these negative influences on their career development. Bloch describes three such attractors. These are point attractors, pendulum attractors, and torus attractors.
 * According to Bloch a
 * "returns repeatedly to the same state as if drawn by a magnet" (Bloch, 2005, p. 198). One good example of this is the student who always wanted to be a lawyer since he was five years old. He has always been so focused on becoming a lawyer that he has never even considered another career choice. Even if a school counselor suggests to the student that he should investigate other options, the student always returns to wanting to be a lawyer. What happens when this student fails the LSAT to get into law school or fails the Bar Exam? He will come to us (the career counselors) wondering what other careers he should consider. Maybe he would be just as happy being a paralegal or a clerk instead of a lawyer. We need to help these clients see that it is not the end of the world if they spent their whole life trying to be one thing and end up being another. They may see their career path as chaotic, but we need to help them see the other opportunities out there either in related jobs or perhaps in a field they never considered before.
 * The second type of attractor that Deborah Bloch discusses is the
 * (2005, p. 200). This type of attractor is where the individual swings back and forth like a pendulum. This means that the person swings back and forth between order and chaos and between possible career decision and total career indecision. They might consider a range of careers, but never fully proceed to commit to any of them.
 * The third type of attractor that Deborah Bloch discusses is the
 * (2005, p. 194).

The Need for Career Counselors:

Additional Articles [|Implications for Career Counselors] [|John Holland's Theory.pdf]
 * This article reviews several career development theories and the implications these theories have for career development counselling as a high school counselor.
 * The above article is a great synopsis of Holland's work and hexagon. It also incoporate some of his key terms, as well as Gottfredson and the P-E Theory.

[|Super and Career Maturity.pdf] [|Super's Rainbow and Refinements.pdf] [|SCCT Related to Holland.pdf] Gibson, D. M. (2005). The use of genograms in career counseling with elementary, middle, and high school students.// The Career Development Quarterly, 53 //, 353 – 362. Duffy, R. D. (2006). Spirituality, religion, and development: Current status and future directions. //The Career Development Quarterly//, 55, 52-63. Savickas, M. L. (1995). Constructivist counseling for career indecision. //Career Development Quarterly//, 43, 363-373. Guindon, M., & Hanna, F. (2002). Coincidence, happenstance, serendipity, fate, or the hand of god: Case studies in synchronicity. //The Career Development Quarterly//, 50, 195-208. Bloch, D. (2005). Complexity, chaos, and nonlinear dynamics: A new perspective on career development theory. //The Career Developmental Quarterly//, 53, 194-207. 
 * This article does a nice job of talking about Super's concept of Career Maturity and applies the concept to certain groups (ie: sex, location, SES, etc.)
 * This article talks about Super's idea of the career rainbow and also gives areas of Super's research that will need to be refined as time goes on. A very interesting read for those that will do career counseling and need to be up to date on the literature.
 * This is an interesting article where the authors critique the work of 2 other authors that tries to suggest that self-efficacy and Holland's RIASEC model were virtually interchangable. The authors of this article point out how the concepts compliment one another, but do not act synonamous.
 * Nauta, M. M.(2010) The Development, Evolution, and Status of Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personalities: Reflections and Future Directions for Counseling Psychology Journal of Counseling Psychology 2010, Vol. 57, No. 1, 11–22
 * This is a great article giving an overview of Holland's theory, his instruments and classification materials and how it all holds up today.
 * Status, recognition, affilitation